Food Swamps Predict Obesity Rates Better Than Food Deserts in the United States

This paper investigates the effect of food environments, characterized as food swamps, on adult obesity rates. Food swamps have been described as areas with a high-density of establishments selling high-calorie fast food and junk food, relative to healthier food options. This study examines multiple...

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Bibliographic Details
Published in:International journal of environmental research and public health Vol. 14; no. 11; p. 1366
Main Authors: Cooksey-Stowers, Kristen, Schwartz, Marlene, Brownell, Kelly
Format: Journal Article
Language:English
Published: Switzerland MDPI AG 14.11.2017
MDPI
Subjects:
Diet, Healthy
Environment
Fast Foods
Food deserts
Food Supply - statistics & numerical data
Grocery stores
Humans
Income
Low income groups
Minority & ethnic groups
Obesity
Obesity - epidemiology
Residence Characteristics - statistics & numerical data
Supermarkets
United States - epidemiology
United States
United States > US
instrumental variables
fast food retail
zoning
food deserts
food environments
food swamps
obesity
ISSN:1660-4601, 1661-7827, 1660-4601
Online Access:Get full text
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Summary:This paper investigates the effect of food environments, characterized as food swamps, on adult obesity rates. Food swamps have been described as areas with a high-density of establishments selling high-calorie fast food and junk food, relative to healthier food options. This study examines multiple ways of categorizing food environments as food swamps and food deserts, including alternate versions of the Retail Food Environment Index. We merged food outlet, sociodemographic and obesity data from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food Environment Atlas, the American Community Survey, and a commercial street reference dataset. We employed an instrumental variables (IV) strategy to correct for the endogeneity of food environments (i.e., that individuals self-select into neighborhoods and may consider food availability in their decision). Our results suggest that the presence of a food swamp is a stronger predictor of obesity rates than the absence of full-service grocery stores. We found, even after controlling for food desert effects, food swamps have a positive, statistically significant effect on adult obesity rates. All three food swamp measures indicated the same positive association, but reflected different magnitudes of the food swamp effect on rates of adult obesity (p values ranged from 0.00 to 0.16). Our adjustment for reverse causality, using an IV approach, revealed a stronger effect of food swamps than would have been obtained by naïve ordinary least squares (OLS) estimates. The food swamp effect was stronger in counties with greater income inequality (p < 0.05) and where residents are less mobile (p < 0.01). Based on these findings, local government policies such as zoning laws simultaneously restricting access to unhealthy food outlets and incentivizing healthy food retailers to locate in underserved neighborhoods warrant consideration as strategies to increase health equity.
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ISSN:1660-4601
1661-7827
1660-4601
DOI:10.3390/ijerph14111366