Why the COVID-19 pandemic is a traumatic stressor

The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposu...

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Veröffentlicht in:	PloS one Jg. 16; H. 1; S. e0240146
Hauptverfasser:	Bridgland, Victoria M. E., Moeck, Ella K., Green, Deanne M., Swain, Taylor L., Nayda, Diane M., Matson, Lucy A., Hutchison, Nadine P., Takarangi, Melanie K. T.
Format:	Journal Article
Sprache:	Englisch
Veröffentlicht:	United States Public Library of Science 11.01.2021 Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Schlagworte:	Adolescent Adult Aged Anxiety Anxiety - diagnosis Anxiety - etiology Australia Biology and Life Sciences Cancer Coronaviruses COVID-19 COVID-19 - complications COVID-19 - epidemiology Depression - diagnosis Depression - etiology Diagnosis Education Emotions Epidemics Exposure Female Humans Hurricanes Injuries Male Medicine and Health Sciences Mental depression Mental health Middle Aged Neural networks Nurses Pandemics Post traumatic stress disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder Psychological aspects Psychology Risk factors Social Sciences Social work Stress Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic - diagnosis Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic - etiology Stress, Psychological - diagnosis Stress, Psychological - etiology Trauma Viral diseases Viruses Young Adult Australia South Australia Australia
ISSN:	1932-6203, 1932-6203
Online-Zugang:	Volltext
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Abstract	The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants ( N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 “exposure” (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of “worst” experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress.
AbstractList	The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants (N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 "exposure" (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of "worst" experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress.The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants (N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 "exposure" (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of "worst" experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress. The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants (N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 "exposure" (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of "worst" experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress. [...]there is convincing evidence that similar neural networks underlie remembering the past and imagining the future [13]. [...]it is possible that problematic reactions can occur in response to any mentally rendered experience, whether it is remembered and/or imagined. Given the unknown timeline of COVID-19, it seems especially likely that PTSD-like symptoms could arise due to anticipating any number of negative future events (e.g., loved ones becoming sick) associated with the virus, particularly in the early weeks of the pandemic (when the current data were collected). [...]given COVID-19 is still unfolding, people may experience peri-traumatic reactions (responses at the time of a stressful event or immediately after). Recent evidence supports this interpretation: exposure to COVID-19 related news in the initial stages of the outbreak was associated with negative affect, anxiety, depression and stress [21]. [...]we turn to the idea of traumatic stress arising only from exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury or sexual violation (i.e., only to certain kinds of serious events). The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic stress symptoms as a result of this ongoing global stressor. Current pathogenic event models focus on past, and largely direct, trauma exposure to certain kinds of life-threatening events. Yet, traumatic stress reactions to future, indirect trauma exposure, and non-Criterion A events exist, suggesting COVID-19 is also a traumatic stressor which could lead to PTSD symptomology. To examine this idea, we asked a sample of online participants ( N = 1,040), in five western countries, to indicate the COVID-19 events they had been directly exposed to, events they anticipated would happen in the future, and other forms of indirect exposure such as through media coverage. We then asked participants to complete the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Checklist-5, adapted to measure pre/peri/post-traumatic reactions in relation to COVID-19. We also measured general emotional reactions (e.g., angry, anxious, helpless), well-being, psychosocial functioning, and depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. We found participants had PTSD-like symptoms for events that had not happened and when participants had been directly (e.g., contact with virus) or indirectly exposed to COVID-19 (e.g., via media). Moreover, 13.2% of our sample were likely PTSD-positive, despite types of COVID-19 “exposure” (e.g., lockdown) not fitting DSM-5 criteria. The emotional impact of “worst” experienced/anticipated events best predicted PTSD-like symptoms. Taken together, our findings support emerging research that COVID-19 can be understood as a traumatic stressor event capable of eliciting PTSD-like responses and exacerbating other related mental health problems (e.g., anxiety, depression, psychosocial functioning, etc.). Our findings add to existing literature supporting a pathogenic event memory model of traumatic stress. [...]there is convincing evidence that similar neural networks underlie remembering the past and imagining the future [13]. [...]it is possible that problematic reactions can occur in response to any mentally rendered experience, whether it is remembered and/or imagined. Given the unknown timeline of COVID-19, it seems especially likely that PTSD-like symptoms could arise due to anticipating any number of negative future events (e.g., loved ones becoming sick) associated with the virus, particularly in the early weeks of the pandemic (when the current data were collected). [...]given COVID-19 is still unfolding, people may experience peri-traumatic reactions (responses at the time of a stressful event or immediately after). Recent evidence supports this interpretation: exposure to COVID-19 related news in the initial stages of the outbreak was associated with negative affect, anxiety, depression and stress [21]. [...]we turn to the idea of traumatic stress arising only from exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury or sexual violation (i.e., only to certain kinds of serious events).
Audience	Academic
Author	Hutchison, Nadine P. Green, Deanne M. Moeck, Ella K. Matson, Lucy A. Nayda, Diane M. Takarangi, Melanie K. T. Bridgland, Victoria M. E. Swain, Taylor L.
AuthorAffiliation	2 Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia 1 College of Education, Psychology & Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia Koc University School of Medicine, TURKEY
AuthorAffiliation_xml	– name: 2 Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia – name: 1 College of Education, Psychology & Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia – name: Koc University School of Medicine, TURKEY
Author_xml	– sequence: 1 givenname: Victoria M. E. orcidid: 0000-0002-8865-8426 surname: Bridgland fullname: Bridgland, Victoria M. E. – sequence: 2 givenname: Ella K. surname: Moeck fullname: Moeck, Ella K. – sequence: 3 givenname: Deanne M. surname: Green fullname: Green, Deanne M. – sequence: 4 givenname: Taylor L. surname: Swain fullname: Swain, Taylor L. – sequence: 5 givenname: Diane M. surname: Nayda fullname: Nayda, Diane M. – sequence: 6 givenname: Lucy A. surname: Matson fullname: Matson, Lucy A. – sequence: 7 givenname: Nadine P. surname: Hutchison fullname: Hutchison, Nadine P. – sequence: 8 givenname: Melanie K. T. surname: Takarangi fullname: Takarangi, Melanie K. T.
BackLink	https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/33428630$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed
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Snippet	The COVID-19 pandemic does not fit into prevailing Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) models, or diagnostic criteria, yet emerging research shows traumatic... [...]there is convincing evidence that similar neural networks underlie remembering the past and imagining the future [13]. [...]it is possible that... [...]there is convincing evidence that similar neural networks underlie remembering the past and imagining the future [13]. [...]it is possible that...
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SubjectTerms	Adolescent Adult Aged Anxiety Anxiety - diagnosis Anxiety - etiology Australia Biology and Life Sciences Cancer Coronaviruses COVID-19 COVID-19 - complications COVID-19 - epidemiology Depression - diagnosis Depression - etiology Diagnosis Education Emotions Epidemics Exposure Female Humans Hurricanes Injuries Male Medicine and Health Sciences Mental depression Mental health Middle Aged Neural networks Nurses Pandemics Post traumatic stress disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder Psychological aspects Psychology Risk factors Social Sciences Social work Stress Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic - diagnosis Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic - etiology Stress, Psychological - diagnosis Stress, Psychological - etiology Trauma Viral diseases Viruses Young Adult
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Title	Why the COVID-19 pandemic is a traumatic stressor
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