Putting Behavioral Economics to Work: Testing for Gift Exchange in Labor Markets Using Field Experiments

Recent discoveries in behavioral economics have led scholars to question the underpinnings of neoclassical economics. We use insights gained from one of the most influential lines of behavioral research-gift exchange-in an attempt to maximize worker effort in two quite distinct tasks: data entry for...

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Veröffentlicht in:	Econometrica Jg. 74; H. 5; S. 1365 - 1384
Hauptverfasser:	Gneezy, Uri, List, John A
Format:	Journal Article
Sprache:	Englisch
Veröffentlicht:	Oxford, UK Blackwell Publishing Ltd 01.09.2006 Econometric Society Blackwell
Schlagworte:	Academic libraries Applications Attorneys Behavioral economics Economic methodology Economic psychology Empirical evidence Employers Exact sciences and technology Experimental economics Experiments field experiment Field experiments Fund raising Fundraising Gift Gift exchange Gift giving Gifts Insurance, economics, finance Labor economics Labor market Labor markets Labour economics Labour market Libraries Mathematics Money Natural hazards Neoclassical economics Probability and statistics Productivity Research centers Research facilities Ritual exchange Sciences and techniques of general use Statistics Volunteers Wages Wages & salaries Workers Statistical method Economics Wage Statistical test Gift exchange Labour market Econometrics Field experiment
ISSN:	0012-9682, 1468-0262
Online-Zugang:	Volltext
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Abstract	Recent discoveries in behavioral economics have led scholars to question the underpinnings of neoclassical economics. We use insights gained from one of the most influential lines of behavioral research-gift exchange-in an attempt to maximize worker effort in two quite distinct tasks: data entry for a university library and door-to-door fundraising for a research center. In support of the received literature, our field evidence suggests that worker effort in the first few hours on the job is considerably higher in the "gift" treatment than in the "nongift" treatment. After the initial few hours, however, no difference in outcomes is observed, and overall the gift treatment yielded inferior aggregate outcomes for the employer: with the same budget we would have logged more data for our library and raised more money for our research center by using the market-clearing wage rather than by trying to induce greater effort with a gift of higher wages.
AbstractList	Recent discoveries in behavioral economics have led scholars to question the underpinnings of neoclassical economics. We use insights gained from one of the most influential lines of behavioral research-gift exchange-in an attempt to maximize worker effort in two quite distinct tasks: data entry for a university library and door-to-door fundraising for a research center. In support of the received literature, our field evidence suggests that worker effort in the first few hours on the job is considerably higher in the 'gift' treatment than in the 'nongift' treatment. After the initial few hours, however, no difference in outcomes is observed, and overall the gift treatment yielded inferior aggregate outcomes for the employer: with the same budget we would have logged more data for our library and raised more money for our research center by using the market-clearing wage rather than by trying to induce greater effort with a gift of higher wages. Reprinted by permission of the Econometric Society Recent discoveries in behavioral economics have led scholars to question the underpinnings of neoclassical economics. We use insights gained from one of the most influential lines of behavioral research-gift exchange-in an attempt to maximize worker effort in two quite distinct tasks: data entry for a university library and door-to-door fundraising for a research center. In support of the received literature, our field evidence suggests that worker effort in the first few hours on the job is considerably higher in the "gift" treatment than in the "nongift" treatment. After the initial few hours, however, no difference in outcomes is observed, and overall the gift treatment yielded inferior aggregate outcomes for the employer: with the same budget we would have logged more data for our library and raised more money for our research center by using the market-clearing wage rather than by trying to induce greater effort with a gift of higher wages. Recent discoveries in behavioral economics have led scholars to question the underpinnings of neoclassical economics. We use insights gained from one of the most influential lines of behavioral research-gift exchange-in an attempt to maximize worker effort in two quite distinct tasks: data entry for a university library and door-to-door fundraising for a research center. In support of the received literature, our field evidence suggests that worker effort in the first few hours on the job is considerably higher in the "gift" treatment than in the "nongift" treatment. After the initial few hours, however, no difference in outcomes is observed, and overall the gift treatment yielded inferior aggregate outcomes for the employer: with the same budget we would have logged more data for our library and raised more money for our research center by using the market-clearing wage rather than by trying to induce greater effort with a gift of higher wages. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]
Author	Gneezy, Uri List, John A
Author_xml	– sequence: 1 givenname: Uri surname: Gneezy fullname: Gneezy, Uri organization: The Rady School of Management, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92093, U.S.A.; ugneezy@gsb.uchicago.edu – sequence: 2 givenname: John A surname: List fullname: List, John A organization: Dept. of Economics at Chicago, University of Chicago, 5807 South Woodlawn Ave., Chicago, IL 60637, U.S.A.; NBER, and RFF; jlist@uchicago.edu
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ContentType	Journal Article
Copyright	Copyright 2006 The Econometric Society 2006 INIST-CNRS Copyright Blackwell Publishing Sep 2006
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Keywords	Statistical method Economics Wage Statistical test Gift exchange Labour market Econometrics Field experiment
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Notes	istex:F19A11FC4AF1D325DCF71DA7B541BB13389FC7E5 ark:/67375/WNG-1051PQM3-J ArticleID:ECTA707 A co‐editor and four anonymous reviewers provided comments that significantly improved the study. Ernst Fehr and Glenn Harrison also provided remarks that improved the manuscript. Stefan Andersen provided fine research assistance. Craig Landry, Andreas Lange, Michael Price and Nicholas Rupp also helped with gathering the data. Jamie Brown‐Kruse worked with us in her capacity as the Director of the Hazards Center. SourceType-Scholarly Journals-1 ObjectType-Feature-1 content type line 14 ObjectType-Article-2 content type line 23
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References	Argyle, M. (1981): The Social Psychology of Work. Baltimore , MD : Penguin Books. [1366]. Engelmann, D., A. Ortmann (2002): "The Robustness of Laboratory Gift Exchange: A Reconsideration," Working Paper, Charles University. [1379]. Fehr, E., A. Falk (1999): "Wage Rigidity in a Competitive Incomplete Contract Market," Journal of Political Economy, 107, 106-134. [1366]. Katz, L. F. (1986): "Efficiency Wage Theories: A Partial Evaluation," Working Paper 1906, NBER. [1368]. Fehr, E., G. Kirchsteiger, and A. Riedl (1993): "Does Fairness Prevent Market Clearing? An Experimental Investigation," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108, 437-460. [1366]. Charness, G. (2004): "Attribution and Reciprocity in an Experimental Labor Market," "Journal of Labor Economics", 22, 665-688. [1366]. Rigdon, M. (2002): "Efficiency Wages in an Experimental Labor Market," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 13348-13351. [1379]. Steers, R. M., L. W. Porter (1991): Motivation and Work Behavior (Fifth Ed.). New York : McGraw-Hill. [1366]. Kahneman, D., J. L. Knetsch, and R. H. Thaler (1986): "Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking: Entitlements in the Market," American Economic Review, 76, 728-741. [1366]. Bewley, T. F. (1999): Why Wages Don't Fall During a Recession. Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press. [1380]. Landry, C., A. Lange, J. A. List, M. K. Price, N. Rupp (2006): "Toward an Understanding of the Economics of Charity: Evidence from a Field Experiment," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121, 747-782. [1369,1377,1378]. Sobel, J. (2005): "Interdependent Preferences and Reciprocity," Journal of Economic Literature, 43, 392-436. [1366]. Agell, J., P. Lundborg (1995): "Theories of Pay and Unemployment: Survey Evidence from Swedish Manufacturing Firms," Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 97, 295-307. [1366]. Akerlof, G. A. (1982): "Labor Contracts as Partial Gift Exchange," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 97, 543-569. [1365-1366]. Fehr, E., S. Gächter, and G. Kirchsteiger (1997): "Reciprocity as a Contract Enforcement Device," Econometrica, 65, 833-860. [1366]. Gneezy, U. (2006): "Bonuses versus Predetermined Wages: A Study of Incentives and Reciprocity," Mimeo , University of Chicago. [1381]. Gilbert, D. T., E. C. Pinel, T. D. Wilson, S. J. Blumberg, T. Wheatley (1998): "Immune Neglect: A Source of Durability Bias in Affective Forecasting," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 617-638. [1367-1377]. Guth, W., R. Schmittberger, and B. Schwarze (1982): "An Experimental Analysis of Ultimatum Bargaining," Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3, 367-388. [1366]. Guth, W. (1995): "On Ultimatum Bargaining Experiments: A Personal Review," Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 27, 329-344. [1366]. Adams, J. S. (1963): "Toward an Understanding of Inequality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXVII, 422-436. [1365]. Loewenstein, G. (2005): "Hot-Cold Empathy Gaps and Medical Decision-Making," Health Psychology, 24, S49-S56. [1366-1377]. Charness, G., G. R. Frechette, and J. H. Kagel (2004): "How Robust Is Laboratory Gift Exchange Experimental Economics, 7, 189-205. [1379]. Gneezy, U., A. Rustichini (2000): "A Fine Is a Price," Journal of Legal Studies, XXIX, 1-18. [1379]. Fehr, E., J. A. List (2004): "The Hidden Costs and Returns of Incentives-Trust and Trustworthiness among CEOS," Journal of the European Economic Association, 2, 743-771. [1379]. Houser, D., E. Xiao, K. McCabe, V Smith (2005): "When Punishment Fails: Research on Sanctions, Intentions and Non-Cooperation," Working Paper, George Mason University. [1379]. Berg, J., J. W. Dickhaut, and K. A. McCabe (1995): "Trust, Reciprocity, and Social History," Games and Economic Behavior, 10, 122-142. [1366]. Harrison, G. W., J. A. List (2004): "Field Experiments," Journal of Economic Literature, XLII, 1009-1055. [1380-1381]. Akerlof, G. A., J. L. Yellen (1990): "The Fair Wage-Effort Hypothesis and Unemployment," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 105, 255-283. [1365]. Akerlof, G. A., J. L. Yellen (1988): "Fairness and Unemployment," American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, 83, 44-49. [1365]. Fehr, E., S. Gächter (2000): "Fairness and Retaliation: The Economics of Reciprocity," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14, 159-181. [1366]. Falk, A., S. Gächter (2002): "Reputation and Reciprocity-Consequences for Labour Relations," Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 104, 1-26. [1366]. 1995; 97 2004; 22 1990; 105 1993; 108 1997; 65 1986; 76 1982; 97 2004; 7 1995; 10 2002; 99 2006 1995 2005; 43 2005 2004; 2 2002 1991 2000; XXIX 2004; XLII 1999; 107 2005; 24 1999 2000; 14 1995; 27 1963; LXVII 1982; 3 1986 2002; 104 2006; 121 1988; 83 1981 1998; 75 b7_237 b18_248 b2_232 Kahneman D. (b25_255) 1986; 76 Katz L. F. (b26_256) 1986 b28_258 Akerlof G. A. (b4_234) 1988; 83 b13_243 b17_247 b3_233 b22_252 b30_260 b12_242 b16_246 b23_253 b27_257 Bewley T. F. (b8_238) 1999 Engelmann D. (b11_241) 2002 b10_240 b21_251 b32_262 b20_250 Steers R. M. (b33_263) 1991 b15_245 Fehr E. (b14_244) 2000; 14 Roth A. (b31_261) 1995 Gneezy U. (b19_249) 2006 Houser D. (b24_254) 2005 b1_231 b5_235 b9_239 Loewenstein G. (b29_259) 1999 Argyle M. (b6_236) 1981
References_xml	– reference: Agell, J., P. Lundborg (1995): "Theories of Pay and Unemployment: Survey Evidence from Swedish Manufacturing Firms," Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 97, 295-307. [1366]. – reference: Akerlof, G. A., J. L. Yellen (1988): "Fairness and Unemployment," American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings, 83, 44-49. [1365]. – reference: Fehr, E., S. Gächter, and G. Kirchsteiger (1997): "Reciprocity as a Contract Enforcement Device," Econometrica, 65, 833-860. [1366]. – reference: Kahneman, D., J. L. Knetsch, and R. H. Thaler (1986): "Fairness as a Constraint on Profit Seeking: Entitlements in the Market," American Economic Review, 76, 728-741. [1366]. – reference: Sobel, J. (2005): "Interdependent Preferences and Reciprocity," Journal of Economic Literature, 43, 392-436. [1366]. – reference: Bewley, T. F. (1999): Why Wages Don't Fall During a Recession. Cambridge , MA : Harvard University Press. [1380]. – reference: Rigdon, M. (2002): "Efficiency Wages in an Experimental Labor Market," Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 13348-13351. [1379]. – reference: Berg, J., J. W. Dickhaut, and K. A. McCabe (1995): "Trust, Reciprocity, and Social History," Games and Economic Behavior, 10, 122-142. [1366]. – reference: Fehr, E., J. A. List (2004): "The Hidden Costs and Returns of Incentives-Trust and Trustworthiness among CEOS," Journal of the European Economic Association, 2, 743-771. [1379]. – reference: Fehr, E., S. Gächter (2000): "Fairness and Retaliation: The Economics of Reciprocity," Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14, 159-181. [1366]. – reference: Guth, W. (1995): "On Ultimatum Bargaining Experiments: A Personal Review," Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 27, 329-344. [1366]. – reference: Fehr, E., A. Falk (1999): "Wage Rigidity in a Competitive Incomplete Contract Market," Journal of Political Economy, 107, 106-134. [1366]. – reference: Argyle, M. (1981): The Social Psychology of Work. Baltimore , MD : Penguin Books. [1366]. – reference: Engelmann, D., A. Ortmann (2002): "The Robustness of Laboratory Gift Exchange: A Reconsideration," Working Paper, Charles University. [1379]. – reference: Charness, G. (2004): "Attribution and Reciprocity in an Experimental Labor Market," "Journal of Labor Economics", 22, 665-688. [1366]. – reference: Katz, L. F. (1986): "Efficiency Wage Theories: A Partial Evaluation," Working Paper 1906, NBER. [1368]. – reference: Akerlof, G. A. (1982): "Labor Contracts as Partial Gift Exchange," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 97, 543-569. [1365-1366]. – reference: Gneezy, U., A. Rustichini (2000): "A Fine Is a Price," Journal of Legal Studies, XXIX, 1-18. [1379]. – reference: Fehr, E., G. Kirchsteiger, and A. Riedl (1993): "Does Fairness Prevent Market Clearing? An Experimental Investigation," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 108, 437-460. [1366]. – reference: Gilbert, D. T., E. C. Pinel, T. D. Wilson, S. J. Blumberg, T. Wheatley (1998): "Immune Neglect: A Source of Durability Bias in Affective Forecasting," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 617-638. [1367-1377]. – reference: Akerlof, G. A., J. L. Yellen (1990): "The Fair Wage-Effort Hypothesis and Unemployment," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 105, 255-283. [1365]. – reference: Loewenstein, G. (2005): "Hot-Cold Empathy Gaps and Medical Decision-Making," Health Psychology, 24, S49-S56. [1366-1377]. – reference: Gneezy, U. (2006): "Bonuses versus Predetermined Wages: A Study of Incentives and Reciprocity," Mimeo , University of Chicago. [1381]. – reference: Guth, W., R. Schmittberger, and B. Schwarze (1982): "An Experimental Analysis of Ultimatum Bargaining," Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 3, 367-388. [1366]. – reference: Harrison, G. W., J. A. List (2004): "Field Experiments," Journal of Economic Literature, XLII, 1009-1055. [1380-1381]. – reference: Falk, A., S. Gächter (2002): "Reputation and Reciprocity-Consequences for Labour Relations," Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 104, 1-26. [1366]. – reference: Charness, G., G. R. Frechette, and J. H. Kagel (2004): "How Robust Is Laboratory Gift Exchange Experimental Economics, 7, 189-205. [1379]. – reference: Steers, R. M., L. W. Porter (1991): Motivation and Work Behavior (Fifth Ed.). New York : McGraw-Hill. [1366]. – reference: Adams, J. S. (1963): "Toward an Understanding of Inequality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LXVII, 422-436. [1365]. – reference: Houser, D., E. Xiao, K. McCabe, V Smith (2005): "When Punishment Fails: Research on Sanctions, Intentions and Non-Cooperation," Working Paper, George Mason University. [1379]. – reference: Landry, C., A. Lange, J. A. List, M. K. Price, N. Rupp (2006): "Toward an Understanding of the Economics of Charity: Evidence from a Field Experiment," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121, 747-782. 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Snippet	Recent discoveries in behavioral economics have led scholars to question the underpinnings of neoclassical economics. We use insights gained from one of the...
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SubjectTerms	Academic libraries Applications Attorneys Behavioral economics Economic methodology Economic psychology Empirical evidence Employers Exact sciences and technology Experimental economics Experiments field experiment Field experiments Fund raising Fundraising Gift Gift exchange Gift giving Gifts Insurance, economics, finance Labor economics Labor market Labor markets Labour economics Labour market Libraries Mathematics Money Natural hazards Neoclassical economics Probability and statistics Productivity Research centers Research facilities Ritual exchange Sciences and techniques of general use Statistics Volunteers Wages Wages & salaries Workers
Title	Putting Behavioral Economics to Work: Testing for Gift Exchange in Labor Markets Using Field Experiments
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