review of the use of direct seeding and seedling plantings in restoration: what do we know and where should we go?

QUESTIONS: To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration techniques. What method results in the most timely and cost‐effective means of reinstating biodiversity and restoring ecosystem functions and...

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Published in:Applied vegetation science Vol. 18; no. 4; pp. 561 - 568
Main Authors: Palma, Ana Cristina, Laurance, Susan G.W, Marrs, Rob
Format: Journal Article
Language:English
Published: Malden Opulus Press 01.10.2015
Blackwell Publishing Ltd
John Wiley & Sons Ltd
Wiley Subscription Services, Inc
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ISSN:1402-2001, 1654-109X
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Abstract QUESTIONS: To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration techniques. What method results in the most timely and cost‐effective means of reinstating biodiversity and restoring ecosystem functions and services? METHODS: We explored the efficacy and costs of two re‐vegetation techniques commonly used in ecosystem restoration: direct seeding and planting of seedlings. Our analysis focused on 120 scientific peer‐reviewed publications reporting on experiments using seeds or seedlings, and encompassed a range of ecosystems such as wetlands, savannas and forests. We examined current restoration issues, including species diversity, survival, species selection, costs and how future climate change may influence restoration efforts. RESULTS: Direct seeding experiments used more species than seedling studies, yet showed lower survivorship. Species availability is the major constraint in the selection of which species were used, regardless of the approach employed. Although costs are extremely important when planning a restoration project, few published findings report on the economic aspects of ecosystem restoration. Further, we did not find any study addressing the impacts of global climate change on restoration programmes or how studies should consider future shifts in the environment. CONCLUSIONS: Our results highlight the need for restoration experiments to explore more species. Restoration efforts are in need of detailed reporting that includes time frames and costs. We need to consider future climate scenarios that will affect ecosystem restoration efforts.
AbstractList Questions: To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration techniques. What method results in the most timely and cost-effective means of reinstating biodiversity and restoring ecosystem functions and services? Methods: We explored the efficacy and costs of two re-vegetation techniques commonly used in ecosystem restoration: direct seeding and planting of seedlings. Our analysis focused on 120 scientific peer-reviewed publications reporting on experiments using seeds or seedlings, and encompassed a range of ecosystems such as wetlands, savannas and forests. We examined current restoration issues, including species diversity, survival, species selection, costs and how future climate change may influence restoration efforts. Results: Direct seeding experiments used more species than seedling studies, yet showed lower survivorship. Species availability is the major constraint in the selection of which species were used, regardless of the approach employed. Although costs are extremely important when planning a restoration project, few published findings report on the economic aspects of ecosystem restoration. Further, we did not find any study addressing the impacts of global climate change on restoration programmes or how studies should consider future shifts in the environment. Conclusions: Our results highlight the need for restoration experiments to explore more species. Restoration efforts are in need of detailed reporting that includes time frames and costs. We need to consider future climate scenarios that will affect ecosystem restoration efforts.
Questions To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration techniques. What method results in the most timely and cost-effective means of reinstating biodiversity and restoring ecosystem functions and services? Methods We explored the efficacy and costs of two re-vegetation techniques commonly used in ecosystem restoration: direct seeding and planting of seedlings. Our analysis focused on 120 scientific peer-reviewed publications reporting on experiments using seeds or seedlings, and encompassed a range of ecosystems such as wetlands, savannas and forests. We examined current restoration issues, including species diversity, survival, species selection, costs and how future climate change may influence restoration efforts. Results Direct seeding experiments used more species than seedling studies, yet showed lower survivorship. Species availability is the major constraint in the selection of which species were used, regardless of the approach employed. Although costs are extremely important when planning a restoration project, few published findings report on the economic aspects of ecosystem restoration. Further, we did not find any study addressing the impacts of global climate change on restoration programmes or how studies should consider future shifts in the environment. Conclusions Our results highlight the need for restoration experiments to explore more species. Restoration efforts are in need of detailed reporting that includes time frames and costs. We need to consider future climate scenarios that will affect ecosystem restoration efforts. Direct seeding and planting of seedlings are the most common techniques use in ecosystem restoration. We reviewed 120 papers that included these techniques and examined current restoration issues. Our results highlight the need for restoration experiments to explore more species and consider future climate scenarios that will affect restoration efforts. Additionally, detailed reporting of outcomes and costs are essential.
Questions To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration techniques. What method results in the most timely and cost‐effective means of reinstating biodiversity and restoring ecosystem functions and services? Methods We explored the efficacy and costs of two re‐vegetation techniques commonly used in ecosystem restoration: direct seeding and planting of seedlings. Our analysis focused on 120 scientific peer‐reviewed publications reporting on experiments using seeds or seedlings, and encompassed a range of ecosystems such as wetlands, savannas and forests. We examined current restoration issues, including species diversity, survival, species selection, costs and how future climate change may influence restoration efforts. Results Direct seeding experiments used more species than seedling studies, yet showed lower survivorship. Species availability is the major constraint in the selection of which species were used, regardless of the approach employed. Although costs are extremely important when planning a restoration project, few published findings report on the economic aspects of ecosystem restoration. Further, we did not find any study addressing the impacts of global climate change on restoration programmes or how studies should consider future shifts in the environment. Conclusions Our results highlight the need for restoration experiments to explore more species. Restoration efforts are in need of detailed reporting that includes time frames and costs. We need to consider future climate scenarios that will affect ecosystem restoration efforts. Direct seeding and planting of seedlings are the most common techniques use in ecosystem restoration. We reviewed 120 papers that included these techniques and examined current restoration issues. Our results highlight the need for restoration experiments to explore more species and consider future climate scenarios that will affect restoration efforts. Additionally, detailed reporting of outcomes and costs are essential.
Author Laurance, Susan G.W.
Palma, Ana Cristina
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Appendix S1. Data and studies included in the review.
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PublicationTitle Applied vegetation science
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References Dalling, J.W. & Hubbell, S.P. 2002. Seed size, growth rate and gap microsite conditions as determinants of recruitment success for pioneer species. Journal of Ecology 90: 557-568.
Higgs, E.S. 1997. What is good ecological restoration? Conservation Biology 11: 338-348.
Guariguata, M.R. & Ostertag, R. 2001. Neotropical secondary forest succession: changes in structural and functional characteristics. Forest Ecology and Management 148: 185-206.
Westoby, M., Leishman, M. & Lord, J. 1996. Comparative ecology of seed size and dispersal. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, Biological Science 351: 1309-1318.
Zahawi, R.A. & Holl, K.D. 2009. Comparing the performance of tree stakes and seedlings to restore abandoned tropical pastures. Restoration Ecology 17: 854-864.
Moles, A.T. & Westoby, M. 2002. Seed addition experiments are more likely to increase recruitment in larger-seeded species. Oikos 99: 241-248.
Ellis, E.C., Goldewijk, K.K., Siebert, S., Lightman, D. & Ramankutty, N. 2010. Anthropogenic transformation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000. Global Ecology and Biogeography 19: 589-606.
Florentine, S.K. & Westbrooke, M.E. 2004. Restoration on abandoned tropical pasturelands - do we know enough? Journal for Nature Conservation 12: 85-94.
Sampaio, A.B., Holl, K.D. & Scariot, A. 2007. Does restoration enhance regeneration of seasonal deciduous forests in pastures in central Brazil? Restoration Ecology 15: 462-471.
Chazdon, R.L. 2014. Second growth: the promise of tropical forest regeneration in an age of deforestation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, US.
Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S.R., Chapin, F.S., Coe, M.T., Daily, G.C., (...) & Snyder, P.K. 2005. Global consequences of land use. Science 309: 570-574.
McCullough, S.A. & Endress, B.A. 2012. Do postfire mulching treatments affect plant community recovery in California coastal sage scrub lands? Environmental Management 49: 142-150.
Holl, K.D., Zahawi, R.A., Cole, R.J., Ostertag, R. & Cordell, S. 2011. Planting seedlings in tree islands versus plantations as a large-scale tropical forest restoration strategy. Restoration Ecology 19: 470-479.
Gaertner, M., Nottebrock, H., Fourie, H., Privett, S.D.J. & Richardson, D.M. 2012. Plant invasions, restoration, and economics: perspectives from South African fynbos. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 14: 341-353.
Khurana, E. & Singh, J.S. 2004. Germination and seedling growth of five tree species from tropical dry forest in relation to water stress: impact of seed size. Journal of Tropical Ecology 20: 385-396.
Naeem, S., Duffy, J.E. & Zavaleta, E. 2012. The Functions of Biological Diversity in an Age of Extinction. Science 336: 1401-1406.
SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity). 2010. Global biodiversity outlook 3. SCBD, Montréal, QC, CA.
Vandendriessche, R. 1992. Changes in drought resistance and root-growth capacity of container seedlings in response to nursery drought, nitrogen, and potassium treatments. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 22: 740-749.
SER (Society for Ecological Restoration), & International Science & Policy Working Group. 2004. The SER international primer on ecological restoration. SER, Washington, DC, US.
Hallett, L.M., Standish, R.J. & Hobbs, R.J. 2011. Seed mass and summer drought survival in a Mediterranean-climate ecosystem. Plant Ecology 212: 1479-1489.
Holl, K.D. 1999. Factors limiting tropical rain forest regeneration in abandoned pasture: seed rain, seed germination, microclimate, and soil. Biotropica 31: 229-242.
Kartawinata, K. 1994. The use of secondary forest species in rehabilitation of degraded forest lands. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 7: 76-86.
TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity). 2010. Mainstreaming the economics of nature: a synthesis of the approach, conclusions and recommendations of TEEB. TEEB, Geneva, CH.
Brofas, G. & Varelides, C. 2000. Hydro-seeding and mulching for establishing vegetation on mining spoils in Greece. Land Degradation & Development 11: 375-382.
Cramer, V.A., Hobbs, R.J. & Standish, R.J. 2008. What's new about old fields? Land abandonment and ecosystem assembly. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23: 104-112.
Tilman, D., Fargione, J., Wolff, B., D'Antonio, C., Dobson, A., Howarth, R., Schindler, D., Schlesinger, W.H., Simberloff, D. & Swackhamer, D. 2001b. Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change. Science 292: 281-284.
Celentano, D., Zahawi, R.A., Finegan, B., Ostertag, R., Cole, R.J. & Holl, K.D. 2011. Litterfall dynamics under different tropical forest restoration strategies in Costa Rica. Biotropica 43: 279-287.
Edwards, W. & Krockenberger, A. 2006. Seedling mortality due to drought and fire associated with the 2002 El Nino event in a tropical rain forest in north-east Queensland, Australia. Biotropica 38: 16-26.
Holl, K.D., Loik, M.E., Lin, E.H.V. & Samuels, I.A. 2000. Tropical montane forest restoration in Costa Rica: overcoming barriers to dispersal and establishment. Restoration Ecology 8: 339-349.
Engel, V.L. & Parrotta, J.A. 2001. An evaluation of direct seeding for reforestation of degraded lands in central Sao Paulo state, Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management 152: 169-181.
Tilman, D., Reich, P.B., Knops, J., Wedin, D., Mielke, T. & Lehman, C. 2001a. Diversity and productivity in a long-term grassland experiment. Science 294: 843-845.
Arellano, G. & Peco, B. 2012. Testing the role of seed size in annual legume seedling performance under experimental autumn moisture conditions. Journal of Vegetation Science 23: 690-697.
Herman, J.J., Sultan, S.E., Horgan-Kobelski, T. & Riggs, C. 2012. Adaptive transgenerational plasticity in an annual plant: grandparental and parental drought stress enhance performance of seedlings in dry soil. Integrative and Comparative Biology 52: 77-88.
Kirmer, A., Baasch, A. & Tischew, S. 2012. Sowing of low and high diversity seed mixtures in ecological restoration of surface mined-land. Applied Vegetation Science 15: 198-207.
Long, H.L., Heilig, G.K., Wang, J., Li, X.B., Luo, M., Wu, X.Q. & Zhang, M. 2006. Land use and soil erosion in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River: some socio-economic considerations on China's Grain-for-Green Programme. Land Degradation & Development 17: 589-603.
Gilbert, G.S., Harms, K.E., Hamill, D.N. & Hubbell, S.P. 2001. Effects of seedling size, El Nino drought, seedling density, and distance to nearest conspecific adult on 6-year survival of Ocotea whitei seedlings in Panama. Oecologia 127: 509-516.
Thomlinson, J.R., Serrano, M.I., Lopez, T.D., Aide, T.M. & Zimmerman, J.K. 1996. Land-use dynamics in a post-agricultural Puerto Rican landscape (1936-1988). Biotropica 28: 525-536.
Doust, S.J., Erskine, P.D. & Lamb, D. 2006. Direct seeding to restore rainforest species: microsite effects on the early establishment and growth of rainforest tree seedlings on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 234: 333-343.
Doust, S.J., Erskine, P.D. & Lamb, D. 2008. Restoring rainforest species by direct seeding: tree seedling establishment and growth performance on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 256: 1178-1188.
Funk, J.L., Cleland, E.E., Suding, K.N. & Zavaleta, E.S. 2008. Restoration through reassembly: plant traits and invasion resistance. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23: 695-703.
Cheesman, A.W. & Winter, K. 2013. Growth response and acclimation of CO2 exchange characteristics to elevated temperatures in tropical tree seedlings. Journal of Experimental Botany 64: 3817-3828.
Aide, T.M. & Cavelier, J. 1994. Barriers to lowland tropical forest restoration in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Restoration Ecology 2: 219-229.
de Jong, N.H. 2000. Woody plant restoration and natural regeneration in wet meadow at Coomonderry Swamp on the south coast of New South Wales. Marine and Freshwater Research 51: 81-89.
Espelta, J.M., Retana, J. & Habrouk, A. 2003. An economic and ecological multi-criteria evaluation of reforestation methods to recover burned Pinus nigra forests in NE Spain. Forest Ecology and Management 180: 185-198.
Wortley, L., Hero, J.M. & Howes, M. 2013. Evaluating ecological restoration success: a review of the literature. Restoration Ecology 21: 537-543.
Butchart, S.H.M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., Van Strien, A., Scharlemann, J.P.W., Almond, R.E.A., Baillie, J.E.M., Bomhard, B., Brown, C., (...) & Watson, R. 2010. Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science 328: 1164-1168.
2011; 212
2004; 20
2001b; 292
2010; 328
2010; 19
2013; 21
2010
2006; 38
2006; 17
2013; 64
2000; 8
2002; 99
2000; 51
2005
2004
2012; 15
2012; 14
2011; 19
2001; 148
2012; 52
2007; 15
2006; 234
2001; 127
1996; 28
2001; 152
1997; 11
2001
2000; 11
2001a; 294
2004; 12
2008; 23
2011; 43
2003; 180
2005; 309
1999; 31
2014
2002; 90
2012; 49
1996; 351
2008; 256
2012; 23
2012; 336
1992; 22
1994; 2
1994; 7
2009; 17
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References_xml – reference: TEEB (The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity). 2010. Mainstreaming the economics of nature: a synthesis of the approach, conclusions and recommendations of TEEB. TEEB, Geneva, CH.
– reference: Engel, V.L. & Parrotta, J.A. 2001. An evaluation of direct seeding for reforestation of degraded lands in central Sao Paulo state, Brazil. Forest Ecology and Management 152: 169-181.
– reference: Holl, K.D., Loik, M.E., Lin, E.H.V. & Samuels, I.A. 2000. Tropical montane forest restoration in Costa Rica: overcoming barriers to dispersal and establishment. Restoration Ecology 8: 339-349.
– reference: Guariguata, M.R. & Ostertag, R. 2001. Neotropical secondary forest succession: changes in structural and functional characteristics. Forest Ecology and Management 148: 185-206.
– reference: Higgs, E.S. 1997. What is good ecological restoration? Conservation Biology 11: 338-348.
– reference: de Jong, N.H. 2000. Woody plant restoration and natural regeneration in wet meadow at Coomonderry Swamp on the south coast of New South Wales. Marine and Freshwater Research 51: 81-89.
– reference: Celentano, D., Zahawi, R.A., Finegan, B., Ostertag, R., Cole, R.J. & Holl, K.D. 2011. Litterfall dynamics under different tropical forest restoration strategies in Costa Rica. Biotropica 43: 279-287.
– reference: Kirmer, A., Baasch, A. & Tischew, S. 2012. Sowing of low and high diversity seed mixtures in ecological restoration of surface mined-land. Applied Vegetation Science 15: 198-207.
– reference: Florentine, S.K. & Westbrooke, M.E. 2004. Restoration on abandoned tropical pasturelands - do we know enough? Journal for Nature Conservation 12: 85-94.
– reference: Gaertner, M., Nottebrock, H., Fourie, H., Privett, S.D.J. & Richardson, D.M. 2012. Plant invasions, restoration, and economics: perspectives from South African fynbos. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 14: 341-353.
– reference: Sampaio, A.B., Holl, K.D. & Scariot, A. 2007. Does restoration enhance regeneration of seasonal deciduous forests in pastures in central Brazil? Restoration Ecology 15: 462-471.
– reference: Westoby, M., Leishman, M. & Lord, J. 1996. Comparative ecology of seed size and dispersal. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, Biological Science 351: 1309-1318.
– reference: Moles, A.T. & Westoby, M. 2002. Seed addition experiments are more likely to increase recruitment in larger-seeded species. Oikos 99: 241-248.
– reference: SER (Society for Ecological Restoration), & International Science & Policy Working Group. 2004. The SER international primer on ecological restoration. SER, Washington, DC, US.
– reference: Vandendriessche, R. 1992. Changes in drought resistance and root-growth capacity of container seedlings in response to nursery drought, nitrogen, and potassium treatments. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 22: 740-749.
– reference: Doust, S.J., Erskine, P.D. & Lamb, D. 2006. Direct seeding to restore rainforest species: microsite effects on the early establishment and growth of rainforest tree seedlings on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 234: 333-343.
– reference: Arellano, G. & Peco, B. 2012. Testing the role of seed size in annual legume seedling performance under experimental autumn moisture conditions. Journal of Vegetation Science 23: 690-697.
– reference: Dalling, J.W. & Hubbell, S.P. 2002. Seed size, growth rate and gap microsite conditions as determinants of recruitment success for pioneer species. Journal of Ecology 90: 557-568.
– reference: Long, H.L., Heilig, G.K., Wang, J., Li, X.B., Luo, M., Wu, X.Q. & Zhang, M. 2006. Land use and soil erosion in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River: some socio-economic considerations on China's Grain-for-Green Programme. Land Degradation & Development 17: 589-603.
– reference: Doust, S.J., Erskine, P.D. & Lamb, D. 2008. Restoring rainforest species by direct seeding: tree seedling establishment and growth performance on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 256: 1178-1188.
– reference: Tilman, D., Reich, P.B., Knops, J., Wedin, D., Mielke, T. & Lehman, C. 2001a. Diversity and productivity in a long-term grassland experiment. Science 294: 843-845.
– reference: Brofas, G. & Varelides, C. 2000. Hydro-seeding and mulching for establishing vegetation on mining spoils in Greece. Land Degradation & Development 11: 375-382.
– reference: Hallett, L.M., Standish, R.J. & Hobbs, R.J. 2011. Seed mass and summer drought survival in a Mediterranean-climate ecosystem. Plant Ecology 212: 1479-1489.
– reference: Naeem, S., Duffy, J.E. & Zavaleta, E. 2012. The Functions of Biological Diversity in an Age of Extinction. Science 336: 1401-1406.
– reference: Thomlinson, J.R., Serrano, M.I., Lopez, T.D., Aide, T.M. & Zimmerman, J.K. 1996. Land-use dynamics in a post-agricultural Puerto Rican landscape (1936-1988). Biotropica 28: 525-536.
– reference: Espelta, J.M., Retana, J. & Habrouk, A. 2003. An economic and ecological multi-criteria evaluation of reforestation methods to recover burned Pinus nigra forests in NE Spain. Forest Ecology and Management 180: 185-198.
– reference: Cheesman, A.W. & Winter, K. 2013. Growth response and acclimation of CO2 exchange characteristics to elevated temperatures in tropical tree seedlings. Journal of Experimental Botany 64: 3817-3828.
– reference: Holl, K.D., Zahawi, R.A., Cole, R.J., Ostertag, R. & Cordell, S. 2011. Planting seedlings in tree islands versus plantations as a large-scale tropical forest restoration strategy. Restoration Ecology 19: 470-479.
– reference: McCullough, S.A. & Endress, B.A. 2012. Do postfire mulching treatments affect plant community recovery in California coastal sage scrub lands? Environmental Management 49: 142-150.
– reference: Cramer, V.A., Hobbs, R.J. & Standish, R.J. 2008. What's new about old fields? Land abandonment and ecosystem assembly. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23: 104-112.
– reference: Holl, K.D. 1999. Factors limiting tropical rain forest regeneration in abandoned pasture: seed rain, seed germination, microclimate, and soil. Biotropica 31: 229-242.
– reference: SCBD (Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity). 2010. Global biodiversity outlook 3. SCBD, Montréal, QC, CA.
– reference: Kartawinata, K. 1994. The use of secondary forest species in rehabilitation of degraded forest lands. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 7: 76-86.
– reference: Aide, T.M. & Cavelier, J. 1994. Barriers to lowland tropical forest restoration in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia. Restoration Ecology 2: 219-229.
– reference: Edwards, W. & Krockenberger, A. 2006. Seedling mortality due to drought and fire associated with the 2002 El Nino event in a tropical rain forest in north-east Queensland, Australia. Biotropica 38: 16-26.
– reference: Butchart, S.H.M., Walpole, M., Collen, B., Van Strien, A., Scharlemann, J.P.W., Almond, R.E.A., Baillie, J.E.M., Bomhard, B., Brown, C., (...) & Watson, R. 2010. Global biodiversity: indicators of recent declines. Science 328: 1164-1168.
– reference: Herman, J.J., Sultan, S.E., Horgan-Kobelski, T. & Riggs, C. 2012. Adaptive transgenerational plasticity in an annual plant: grandparental and parental drought stress enhance performance of seedlings in dry soil. Integrative and Comparative Biology 52: 77-88.
– reference: Funk, J.L., Cleland, E.E., Suding, K.N. & Zavaleta, E.S. 2008. Restoration through reassembly: plant traits and invasion resistance. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 23: 695-703.
– reference: Chazdon, R.L. 2014. Second growth: the promise of tropical forest regeneration in an age of deforestation. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, US.
– reference: Wortley, L., Hero, J.M. & Howes, M. 2013. Evaluating ecological restoration success: a review of the literature. Restoration Ecology 21: 537-543.
– reference: Zahawi, R.A. & Holl, K.D. 2009. Comparing the performance of tree stakes and seedlings to restore abandoned tropical pastures. Restoration Ecology 17: 854-864.
– reference: Gilbert, G.S., Harms, K.E., Hamill, D.N. & Hubbell, S.P. 2001. Effects of seedling size, El Nino drought, seedling density, and distance to nearest conspecific adult on 6-year survival of Ocotea whitei seedlings in Panama. Oecologia 127: 509-516.
– reference: Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S.R., Chapin, F.S., Coe, M.T., Daily, G.C., (...) & Snyder, P.K. 2005. Global consequences of land use. Science 309: 570-574.
– reference: Khurana, E. & Singh, J.S. 2004. Germination and seedling growth of five tree species from tropical dry forest in relation to water stress: impact of seed size. Journal of Tropical Ecology 20: 385-396.
– reference: Ellis, E.C., Goldewijk, K.K., Siebert, S., Lightman, D. & Ramankutty, N. 2010. Anthropogenic transformation of the biomes, 1700 to 2000. Global Ecology and Biogeography 19: 589-606.
– reference: Tilman, D., Fargione, J., Wolff, B., D'Antonio, C., Dobson, A., Howarth, R., Schindler, D., Schlesinger, W.H., Simberloff, D. & Swackhamer, D. 2001b. Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change. Science 292: 281-284.
– volume: 23
  start-page: 695
  year: 2008
  end-page: 703
  article-title: Restoration through reassembly: plant traits and invasion resistance
  publication-title: Trends in Ecology & Evolution
– volume: 309
  start-page: 570
  year: 2005
  end-page: 574
  article-title: Global consequences of land use
  publication-title: Science
– volume: 294
  start-page: 843
  year: 2001a
  end-page: 845
  article-title: Diversity and productivity in a long‐term grassland experiment
  publication-title: Science
– volume: 17
  start-page: 854
  year: 2009
  end-page: 864
  article-title: Comparing the performance of tree stakes and seedlings to restore abandoned tropical pastures
  publication-title: Restoration Ecology
– volume: 152
  start-page: 169
  year: 2001
  end-page: 181
  article-title: An evaluation of direct seeding for reforestation of degraded lands in central Sao Paulo state, Brazil
  publication-title: Forest Ecology and Management
– volume: 292
  start-page: 281
  year: 2001b
  end-page: 284
  article-title: Forecasting agriculturally driven global environmental change
  publication-title: Science
– volume: 15
  start-page: 198
  year: 2012
  end-page: 207
  article-title: Sowing of low and high diversity seed mixtures in ecological restoration of surface mined‐land
  publication-title: Applied Vegetation Science
– volume: 38
  start-page: 16
  year: 2006
  end-page: 26
  article-title: Seedling mortality due to drought and fire associated with the 2002 El Nino event in a tropical rain forest in north‐east Queensland, Australia
  publication-title: Biotropica
– volume: 180
  start-page: 185
  year: 2003
  end-page: 198
  article-title: An economic and ecological multi‐criteria evaluation of reforestation methods to recover burned forests in NE Spain
  publication-title: Forest Ecology and Management
– volume: 99
  start-page: 241
  year: 2002
  end-page: 248
  article-title: Seed addition experiments are more likely to increase recruitment in larger‐seeded species
  publication-title: Oikos
– volume: 336
  start-page: 1401
  year: 2012
  end-page: 1406
  article-title: The Functions of Biological Diversity in an Age of Extinction
  publication-title: Science
– volume: 11
  start-page: 375
  year: 2000
  end-page: 382
  article-title: Hydro‐seeding and mulching for establishing vegetation on mining spoils in Greece
  publication-title: Land Degradation & Development
– volume: 212
  start-page: 1479
  year: 2011
  end-page: 1489
  article-title: Seed mass and summer drought survival in a Mediterranean‐climate ecosystem
  publication-title: Plant Ecology
– year: 2001
– volume: 51
  start-page: 81
  year: 2000
  end-page: 89
  article-title: Woody plant restoration and natural regeneration in wet meadow at Coomonderry Swamp on the south coast of New South Wales
  publication-title: Marine and Freshwater Research
– volume: 7
  start-page: 76
  year: 1994
  end-page: 86
  article-title: The use of secondary forest species in rehabilitation of degraded forest lands
  publication-title: Journal of Tropical Forest Science
– volume: 2
  start-page: 219
  year: 1994
  end-page: 229
  article-title: Barriers to lowland tropical forest restoration in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia
  publication-title: Restoration Ecology
– volume: 234
  start-page: 333
  year: 2006
  end-page: 343
  article-title: Direct seeding to restore rainforest species: microsite effects on the early establishment and growth of rainforest tree seedlings on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia
  publication-title: Forest Ecology and Management
– volume: 22
  start-page: 740
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Snippet QUESTIONS: To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration...
Questions: To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration...
Questions To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration...
Questions To select the best method to restore an ecosystem requires an understanding of the various outcomes commonly achieved through different restoration...
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StartPage 561
SubjectTerms Aquatic ecosystems
Biodiversity
climate
Climate change
cost effectiveness
Costs
direct seeding
Ecological function
ecological restoration
Ecosystem restoration
Ecosystems
Environmental restoration
Experiments
forests
Global climate
planning
planting
Planting methods
Reforestation
Restoration
Revegetation
savannas
Seeding
Seedlings
Seeds
Species diversity
survival rate
SYNTHESIS
wetlands
Title review of the use of direct seeding and seedling plantings in restoration: what do we know and where should we go?
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https://www.jstor.org/stable/43916596
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111%2Favsc.12173
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https://www.proquest.com/docview/1803083338
Volume 18
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