How the machine ‘thinks’: Understanding opacity in machine learning algorithms
This article considers the issue of opacity as a problem for socially consequential mechanisms of classification and ranking, such as spam filters, credit card fraud detection, search engines, news trends, market segmentation and advertising, insurance or loan qualification, and credit scoring. Thes...
Uloženo v:
| Vydáno v: | Big data & society Ročník 3; číslo 1 |
|---|---|
| Hlavní autor: | |
| Médium: | Journal Article |
| Jazyk: | angličtina |
| Vydáno: |
London, England
SAGE Publications
05.01.2016
SAGE Publishing |
| Témata: | |
| ISSN: | 2053-9517, 2053-9517 |
| On-line přístup: | Získat plný text |
| Tagy: |
Přidat tag
Žádné tagy, Buďte první, kdo vytvoří štítek k tomuto záznamu!
|
| Abstract | This article considers the issue of opacity as a problem for socially consequential mechanisms of classification and ranking, such as spam filters, credit card fraud detection, search engines, news trends, market segmentation and advertising, insurance or loan qualification, and credit scoring. These mechanisms of classification all frequently rely on computational algorithms, and in many cases on machine learning algorithms to do this work. In this article, I draw a distinction between three forms of opacity: (1) opacity as intentional corporate or state secrecy, (2) opacity as technical illiteracy, and (3) an opacity that arises from the characteristics of machine learning algorithms and the scale required to apply them usefully. The analysis in this article gets inside the algorithms themselves. I cite existing literatures in computer science, known industry practices (as they are publicly presented), and do some testing and manipulation of code as a form of lightweight code audit. I argue that recognizing the distinct forms of opacity that may be coming into play in a given application is a key to determining which of a variety of technical and non-technical solutions could help to prevent harm. |
|---|---|
| AbstractList | This article considers the issue of opacity as a problem for socially consequential mechanisms of classification and ranking, such as spam filters, credit card fraud detection, search engines, news trends, market segmentation and advertising, insurance or loan qualification, and credit scoring. These mechanisms of classification all frequently rely on computational algorithms, and in many cases on machine learning algorithms to do this work. In this article, I draw a distinction between three forms of opacity: (1) opacity as intentional corporate or state secrecy, (2) opacity as technical illiteracy, and (3) an opacity that arises from the characteristics of machine learning algorithms and the scale required to apply them usefully. The analysis in this article gets inside the algorithms themselves. I cite existing literatures in computer science, known industry practices (as they are publicly presented), and do some testing and manipulation of code as a form of lightweight code audit. I argue that recognizing the distinct forms of opacity that may be coming into play in a given application is a key to determining which of a variety of technical and non-technical solutions could help to prevent harm. |
| Author | Burrell, Jenna |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Jenna surname: Burrell fullname: Burrell, Jenna email: jburrell@berkeley.edu organization: School of Information, UC-Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA |
| BookMark | eNp9UE1LAzEUDKJgrb173D-wms_NrjcpagsFQew5vN3NtqnbpCQR6a0_Q_9ef4lbqyIFPb1h3szw3pyhY-usRuiC4EtCpLyiWLBCEElERqkg9Aj1dlS6445_4VM0CGGBMSY8F4znPfQ4cq9JnOtkCdXcWJ1sN2-xA89hu3m_Tqa21j5EsLWxs8StoDJxnRj7I281eLvbQTtz3sT5MpyjkwbaoAdfs4-md7dPw1E6ebgfD28maSUwi2mBcS55TkutywzyktUCN2UmBM5KqKsso6ymvAHCy4aTIqeMFgWVJYDkjZCU9dF4n1s7WKiVN0vwa-XAqE_C-ZkCH03VaqUprxuW5QSo5Bw3hWCskLSoJHBN86rLyvZZlXcheN2o7lGIxtnowbSKYLUrWh0W3RnxgfH7kH8s6d4SYKbVwr1429X0t_4DU_OOVw |
| CitedBy_id | crossref_primary_10_1001_jama_2019_15064 crossref_primary_10_1177_23780231241259671 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_inffus_2019_12_012 crossref_primary_10_1177_0894439320980122 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01154_8 crossref_primary_10_1177_1354856520907390 crossref_primary_10_3389_fsoc_2023_1141879 crossref_primary_10_1111_jopp_12262 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techsoc_2020_101378 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01287_w crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01412_3 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3773766 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_procs_2023_01_427 crossref_primary_10_1007_s42797_024_00110_1 crossref_primary_10_1109_TAFFC_2023_3278230 crossref_primary_10_1177_0894439320980118 crossref_primary_10_1177_20552076241287958 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2019_1645194 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517251365228 crossref_primary_10_1080_1600910X_2024_2352043 crossref_primary_10_1108_IJOPM_06_2023_0477 crossref_primary_10_1002_jcpy_1266 crossref_primary_10_1136_medethics_2015_103307 crossref_primary_10_56294_ai2025428 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cpa_2024_102761 crossref_primary_10_1136_medethics_2021_107529 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517221143361 crossref_primary_10_22148_001c_133923 crossref_primary_10_1093_jcmc_zmx001 crossref_primary_10_3390_molecules26041022 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_024_09771_9 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517241232629 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techfore_2025_124265 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infoandorg_2018_02_005 crossref_primary_10_1177_14614448231217425 crossref_primary_10_1515_zfsoz_2018_0121 crossref_primary_10_3224_ezw_v36i1_03 crossref_primary_10_2196_26611 crossref_primary_10_59022_ijlp_331 crossref_primary_10_1080_13183222_2019_1589249 crossref_primary_10_1177_0306312717730428 crossref_primary_10_1108_CR_06_2024_0121 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41562_021_01275_6 crossref_primary_10_3390_digital4020026 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01436_9 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_019_00355_w crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_021_09599_7 crossref_primary_10_1111_peps_12578 crossref_primary_10_1080_1600910X_2023_2221398 crossref_primary_10_1063_5_0160568 crossref_primary_10_1177_13548565241289233 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_019_00377_4 crossref_primary_10_1017_dap_2023_25 crossref_primary_10_1080_13600869_2025_2497633 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_im_2025_104156 crossref_primary_10_1111_ijsa_12325 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_017_0279_x crossref_primary_10_1108_ITP_08_2024_1030 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951719867349 crossref_primary_10_55813_gaea_rcym_v1_n3_18 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11135_021_01125_7 crossref_primary_10_1080_10630732_2025_2450755 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951720913064 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pone_0326028 crossref_primary_10_4018_JDM_318455 crossref_primary_10_3390_su16156364 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11390_020_0482_6 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2025_2476715 crossref_primary_10_1080_13600869_2018_1457000 crossref_primary_10_7717_peerj_cs_1879 crossref_primary_10_1080_13511610_2025_2477609 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_024_02152_2 crossref_primary_10_1177_00018392211010118 crossref_primary_10_5465_amr_2021_0421 crossref_primary_10_1111_1468_4446_12880 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517241296037 crossref_primary_10_1177_00258024241227721 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_joitmc_2024_100329 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_compind_2017_09_003 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_eswa_2025_128954 crossref_primary_10_1186_s12911_025_03183_5 crossref_primary_10_1080_15228053_2023_2233814 crossref_primary_10_1080_17512786_2025_2479499 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_024_04524_z crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_018_0330_6 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techsoc_2021_101688 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_020_01024_9 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41060_024_00687_7 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_023_00280_x crossref_primary_10_1056_NEJMhle2308901 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_025_09712_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_022_09624_3 crossref_primary_10_1177_0011392118816743 crossref_primary_10_1177_0309132520986227 crossref_primary_10_1080_15265161_2024_2337429 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44163_025_00229_5 crossref_primary_10_1145_3527848 crossref_primary_10_1177_14648849211023872 crossref_primary_10_1145_3579485 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_clsr_2022_105690 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jbusres_2024_114567 crossref_primary_10_1007_s42803_023_00080_z crossref_primary_10_1016_j_clsr_2019_04_006 crossref_primary_10_1177_13548565241258949 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_021_09583_6 crossref_primary_10_4000_tc_12594 crossref_primary_10_1177_20563051221117552 crossref_primary_10_1177_14614448241312907 crossref_primary_10_3390_info8030077 crossref_primary_10_1017_cls_2023_20 crossref_primary_10_3389_frai_2024_1426761 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10618_022_00821_8 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_futures_2025_103644 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517251367452 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44163_024_00152_1 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_nanoen_2022_108084 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00493_8 crossref_primary_10_1080_10572252_2019_1634766 crossref_primary_10_1111_psj_70019 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jbusres_2023_114494 crossref_primary_10_14512_gaia_33_1_13 crossref_primary_10_1148_rg_240073 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_025_02430_7 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_chb_2021_106837 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_017_0253_7 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_022_00524_4 crossref_primary_10_1080_01972243_2021_1920081 crossref_primary_10_1053_j_jvca_2021_04_010 crossref_primary_10_1057_s41288_025_00352_5 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41539_025_00301_w crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01158_4 crossref_primary_10_1109_TSE_2019_2962027 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517231158996 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_clsr_2019_01_003 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11948_019_00165_5 crossref_primary_10_1080_00291951_2024_2432308 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_025_02474_9 crossref_primary_10_1136_medethics_2021_107352 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41125_018_0031_2 crossref_primary_10_1080_0020174X_2024_2312455 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517211020775 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517211017593 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ijhcs_2019_05_006 crossref_primary_10_1093_migration_mnaa003 crossref_primary_10_1080_01431161_2017_1331474 crossref_primary_10_1108_ITP_10_2023_1082 crossref_primary_10_1002_ecs2_4477 crossref_primary_10_1177_1461444816676645 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jobe_2020_101827 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_024_09788_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_02681102_2022_2068492 crossref_primary_10_1183_16000617_0010_2020 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infoandorg_2020_100301 crossref_primary_10_12944_CARJ_12_2_19 crossref_primary_10_1177_03063127231185095 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00549_9 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_heliyon_2023_e20138 crossref_primary_10_1145_3415173 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517221111361 crossref_primary_10_47975_digital_law_vol_5_n_3_watzko crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tele_2023_101954 crossref_primary_10_1177_00076503221080959 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0963180122000305 crossref_primary_10_1515_zfsoz_2017_1014 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_025_00686_9 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951717691550 crossref_primary_10_1080_03085147_2022_2050088 crossref_primary_10_1111_joms_13276 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01493_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_07421222_2024_2376382 crossref_primary_10_1162_posc_a_00634 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_chb_2024_108242 crossref_primary_10_1177_1468794120975988 crossref_primary_10_14232_analecta_2024_4_32_44 crossref_primary_10_1111_1468_4446_12839 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00636_x crossref_primary_10_1016_j_chb_2021_106878 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_023_00414_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_021_09570_x crossref_primary_10_1007_s44206_025_00171_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_02684527_2021_1946951 crossref_primary_10_3390_jcm13154337 crossref_primary_10_3390_jtaer18010015 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517221100449 crossref_primary_10_1287_orsc_2021_1544 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10639_024_13097_w crossref_primary_10_1093_bjps_axz035 crossref_primary_10_1177_1350508418808230 crossref_primary_10_18601_16923960_v19n1_01 crossref_primary_10_1287_orsc_2021_1549 crossref_primary_10_1080_20502877_2024_2416858 crossref_primary_10_1017_cfl_2025_9 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517211020332 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jag_2022_102869 crossref_primary_10_1080_0020174X_2023_2261468 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_emj_2025_05_001 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11227_023_05137_y crossref_primary_10_1177_0162243920943665 crossref_primary_10_3390_soc11020063 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10796_023_10369_7 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12525_023_00668_x crossref_primary_10_1016_j_accinf_2021_100523 crossref_primary_10_1177_20563051231224401 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_lrp_2025_102561 crossref_primary_10_1145_3432931 crossref_primary_10_3917_ennu_012_0031 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40593_021_00241_7 crossref_primary_10_1287_orsc_2021_1557 crossref_primary_10_3892_ol_2022_13630 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_025_00862_z crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_017_0273_3 crossref_primary_10_1177_23794607251347020 crossref_primary_10_1109_ACCESS_2025_3553783 crossref_primary_10_3390_bdcc7020118 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00108_023_01602_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_025_09716_1 crossref_primary_10_1111_joms_13246 crossref_primary_10_1111_risa_13850 crossref_primary_10_1177_29768624251358643 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41133_024_00077_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_024_09777_3 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_025_04930_x crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jvb_2024_104042 crossref_primary_10_1136_medethics_2019_105860 crossref_primary_10_25300_MISQ_2025_18765 crossref_primary_10_3390_s23249722 crossref_primary_10_1177_20552076241272657 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40309_022_00202_w crossref_primary_10_1055_a_1695_4507 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_shpsa_2020_04_001 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11257_019_09218_7 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_022_09670_x crossref_primary_10_1007_s10551_019_04226_4 crossref_primary_10_1080_09585192_2021_1925326 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10551_019_04204_w crossref_primary_10_1080_01442872_2020_1724929 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951720926558 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2024_1221177 crossref_primary_10_14210_rdp_v17n2_p509_546 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_artmed_2021_102158 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_heliyon_2022_e10087 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpos_2023_1245684 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_024_02147_z crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01616_7 crossref_primary_10_1111_puar_13602 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_chb_2024_108297 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_giq_2023_101885 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_021_09569_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11948_021_00319_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01486_z crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_023_09628_y crossref_primary_10_1016_j_gsd_2024_101272 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_025_02360_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_020_00426_3 crossref_primary_10_1080_02691728_2021_2020366 crossref_primary_10_1136_medethics_2020_106820 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951717738105 crossref_primary_10_1111_spc3_70051 crossref_primary_10_3390_s22197268 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2020_1713842 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jedc_2020_104032 crossref_primary_10_1080_13669877_2021_1957985 crossref_primary_10_1136_bmjhci_2021_100445 crossref_primary_10_1177_14705931241275558 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01180_6 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_024_09769_3 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_bushor_2018_07_006 crossref_primary_10_1162_leon_a_02302 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_2932221 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10869_025_10012_z crossref_primary_10_1017_can_2024_1 crossref_primary_10_3390_electronics13112107 crossref_primary_10_1109_ACCESS_2024_3391021 crossref_primary_10_3390_healthcare10020291 crossref_primary_10_1080_10630732_2025_2477993 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517221142824 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_023_04260_w crossref_primary_10_1093_llc_fqab079 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10506_024_09430_w crossref_primary_10_1177_13548565221148098 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517211046181 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2022_2159488 crossref_primary_10_1136_bmjhci_2021_100459 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00233_w crossref_primary_10_12688_f1000research_160011_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01249_2 crossref_primary_10_1108_MD_04_2024_0884 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2025_2546661 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10462_020_09833_6 crossref_primary_10_1002_wcms_1681 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_annals_2025_104021 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41562_023_01734_2 crossref_primary_10_3390_s22208005 crossref_primary_10_1080_0144929X_2024_2440116 crossref_primary_10_1108_JEEE_05_2024_0181 crossref_primary_10_1177_03063127231186437 crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_soc_090820_020800 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jstrokecerebrovasdis_2020_105042 crossref_primary_10_1080_07370024_2020_1734460 crossref_primary_10_1093_infdis_jiad158 crossref_primary_10_33847_2712_8148_4_1_4 crossref_primary_10_7717_peerj_6543 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00190_4 crossref_primary_10_1177_01614681231191291 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951717751552 crossref_primary_10_1177_0170840620970728 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44206_025_00224_4 crossref_primary_10_1145_3725858 crossref_primary_10_1080_0969725X_2022_2139003 crossref_primary_10_1145_3555651 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12599_025_00963_1 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517221115426 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_neucom_2019_10_085 crossref_primary_10_1177_14614448231221238 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cpet_2021_07_002 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_giq_2024_101965 crossref_primary_10_1177_20563051211010170 crossref_primary_10_1080_10357718_2024_2333824 crossref_primary_10_1080_13600869_2017_1298547 crossref_primary_10_1080_00140139_2021_2005823 crossref_primary_10_1111_ropr_12555 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_019_00932_9 crossref_primary_10_5465_amj_2021_0150 crossref_primary_10_1177_01622439251331138 crossref_primary_10_1051_e3sconf_202340801006 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13194_021_00405_1 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_giq_2025_102009 crossref_primary_10_15195_v11_a26 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_025_00674_z crossref_primary_10_3917_res_225_0187 crossref_primary_10_1080_10580530_2025_2477458 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2020_1719185 crossref_primary_10_3389_fpsyg_2021_624108 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_021_00105_9 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00224_x crossref_primary_10_1080_13540602_2023_2263732 crossref_primary_10_1177_00187267221075346 crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_anthro_052721_041547 crossref_primary_10_1155_2021_5840759 crossref_primary_10_5325_jinfopoli_9_1_0307 crossref_primary_10_1145_3645103 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00200_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_022_00564_w crossref_primary_10_1177_13505084251321785 crossref_primary_10_1177_0263276420966386 crossref_primary_10_3390_medicina59040790 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2024_2437235 crossref_primary_10_1136_medethics_2019_105586 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11920_022_01378_5 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ssci_2024_106731 crossref_primary_10_3390_socsci14030178 crossref_primary_10_1186_s12911_023_02103_9 crossref_primary_10_4000_ethiquepublique_4429 crossref_primary_10_2196_49061 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11912_023_01376_7 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517211018783 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_018_0316_4 crossref_primary_10_1080_13600869_2020_1733758 crossref_primary_10_1017_epi_2022_39 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infoandorg_2025_100574 crossref_primary_10_1177_2056305118768303 crossref_primary_10_12677_OJLS_2023_113176 crossref_primary_10_1177_2056305118768301 crossref_primary_10_1002_ana_27229 crossref_primary_10_1002_bdm_2414 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_022_09673_8 crossref_primary_10_1111_ntwe_12343 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517211061122 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40656_021_00447_x crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_018_0843_7 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techsoc_2024_102615 crossref_primary_10_4018_JBE_295555 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11191_024_00504_4 crossref_primary_10_3389_fphy_2022_951296 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cola_2022_101149 crossref_primary_10_1080_13602381_2024_2418548 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517241234298 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infoandorg_2025_100585 crossref_primary_10_1111_lapo_12164 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00640_1 crossref_primary_10_4000_12j41 crossref_primary_10_3917_mav_137_0137 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_024_02128_2 crossref_primary_10_25300_MISQ_2021_16559 crossref_primary_10_1109_ACCESS_2024_3409843 crossref_primary_10_1108_AJIM_03_2024_0247 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00586_4 crossref_primary_10_12677_OJLS_2022_103035 crossref_primary_10_1145_3359249 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_020_01110_y crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jbusres_2024_114981 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tele_2018_11_006 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10603_017_9354_z crossref_primary_10_1016_j_chb_2025_108605 crossref_primary_10_15388_Teise_2025_134_4 crossref_primary_10_34216_1998_0817_2024_30_3_290_297 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_024_00705_3 crossref_primary_10_1080_09502386_2021_1895247 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10606_022_09453_4 crossref_primary_10_1177_08944393251367045 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01295_w crossref_primary_10_1007_s11920_022_01330_7 crossref_primary_10_1145_3463928 crossref_primary_10_1590_0101_31572022_3320 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_media_2022_102364 crossref_primary_10_1080_20539320_2022_2143654 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11577_021_00753_z crossref_primary_10_1186_s13584_024_00611_1 crossref_primary_10_4018_JGIM_383050 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01455_6 crossref_primary_10_4185_rlcs_2024_2256 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_024_09701_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_03080188_2020_1840224 crossref_primary_10_25300_MISQ_2021_1578 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41562_021_01146_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_17530350_2018_1545243 crossref_primary_10_1227_neu_0000000000001901 crossref_primary_10_1177_2378023121999581 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40711_024_00213_z crossref_primary_10_1111_epic_12104 crossref_primary_10_63995_AZUQ8110 crossref_primary_10_1080_12460125_2024_2410042 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517251343860 crossref_primary_10_3917_comma_204_0107 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951717743530 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41024_023_00371_6 crossref_primary_10_1093_ser_mwaf033 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_022_09605_x crossref_primary_10_51583_IJLTEMAS_2025_1408000134 crossref_primary_10_19053_uptc_01235095_v10_n35_2024_17095 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_024_01956_6 crossref_primary_10_1108_INTR_08_2021_0600 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40430_021_02908_7 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3774418 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_023_00332_2 crossref_primary_10_3389_fcomp_2021_685277 crossref_primary_10_1017_S1930297500003594 crossref_primary_10_1109_ACCESS_2020_2984925 crossref_primary_10_7420_AK2021_29 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_018_9479_0 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00239_4 crossref_primary_10_1111_awr_12131 crossref_primary_10_37705_TechTrans_e2020030 crossref_primary_10_1177_2056305119847525 crossref_primary_10_15581_011_85_008 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_025_00704_w crossref_primary_10_1111_beer_12479 crossref_primary_10_1177_1461444819891613 crossref_primary_10_1093_jmp_jhac034 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_022_00577_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01542_8 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517231222872 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_chieco_2025_102519 crossref_primary_10_1027_1864_1105_a000484 crossref_primary_10_1080_0960085X_2021_1927213 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00217_w crossref_primary_10_1126_scitranslmed_aao5333 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2021_1994624 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2020_1726986 crossref_primary_10_1080_1600910X_2023_2223395 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951721996046 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_019_00372_9 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951718784083 crossref_primary_10_1080_01616412_2019_1609159 crossref_primary_10_1287_orsc_2022_1651 crossref_primary_10_22394_2074_0492_2020_2_157_182 crossref_primary_10_25300_MISQ_2021_15882 crossref_primary_10_1186_s41239_025_00538_w crossref_primary_10_19053_uptc_01211129_v34_n71_2025_19650 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_025_00879_4 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517241249390 crossref_primary_10_3917_jibes_342_0111 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41027_024_00522_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10506_020_09260_6 crossref_primary_10_1093_isr_viad040 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517231153806 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44206_023_00081_z crossref_primary_10_1007_s10916_021_01790_z crossref_primary_10_38124_ijisrt_25aug871 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44290_025_00224_w crossref_primary_10_1111_sjp_12455 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2021_1874035 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11186_020_09411_3 crossref_primary_10_1080_15265161_2020_1863515 crossref_primary_10_1039_D2SC02981B crossref_primary_10_2105_AJPH_2020_305758 crossref_primary_10_1162_comj_a_00658 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0890060422000270 crossref_primary_10_1177_14614448241262417 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2023_2233138 crossref_primary_10_3390_jrfm16100434 crossref_primary_10_1080_1461670X_2022_2161929 crossref_primary_10_4000_rfsic_6138 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2019_1573914 crossref_primary_10_1017_beq_2021_3 crossref_primary_10_3917_jie_pr1_0160 crossref_primary_10_1007_s42822_020_00031_1 crossref_primary_10_1111_rego_12367 crossref_primary_10_1177_13563890241289937 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11616_022_00758_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44163_024_00151_2 crossref_primary_10_1111_faam_12337 crossref_primary_10_1177_08944393211073169 crossref_primary_10_1038_s42256_019_0114_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_023_01837_4 crossref_primary_10_1080_15534510_2025_2478940 crossref_primary_10_15448_1980_3729_2025_1_45694 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00450_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_024_09819_w crossref_primary_10_1109_TCDS_2020_3044366 crossref_primary_10_5406_21521123_62_2_01 crossref_primary_10_1177_09697330241307317 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00581_9 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_pubrev_2020_101980 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2025_2470280 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11614_023_00535_1 crossref_primary_10_1088_2632_2153_ac1eea crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_025_02411_w crossref_primary_10_1109_JSTARS_2024_3434368 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_024_02088_7 crossref_primary_10_1017_can_2021_39 crossref_primary_10_3233_IP_200260 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2025_2470278 crossref_primary_10_1007_s42979_022_01339_y crossref_primary_10_1111_rego_12391 crossref_primary_10_1093_ser_mwad003 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_017_0263_5 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_respol_2025_105190 crossref_primary_10_1145_3616865 crossref_primary_10_1145_3686996 crossref_primary_10_4000_ticetsociete_5829 crossref_primary_10_1111_padm_70015 crossref_primary_10_1515_gj_2020_0003 crossref_primary_10_1186_s13326_023_00293_9 crossref_primary_10_2196_44131 crossref_primary_10_3390_soc15080213 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11609_023_00502_3 crossref_primary_10_1093_bjc_azaa099 crossref_primary_10_1177_1329878X221077844 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_022_09649_8 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11019_024_10235_6 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951716671340 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951720919968 crossref_primary_10_1145_3637398 crossref_primary_10_1080_09585192_2024_2335515 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_artint_2021_103473 crossref_primary_10_30658_hmc_2_9 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tim_2018_10_012 crossref_primary_10_1177_13684310241234028 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ijhm_2025_104168 crossref_primary_10_2298_THEO2403177B crossref_primary_10_1111_1744_7941_12402 crossref_primary_10_1111_puar_13483 crossref_primary_10_1109_TAI_2023_3266418 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_contraception_2025_110837 crossref_primary_10_1108_JMP_03_2024_0177 crossref_primary_10_1177_0163443720914027 crossref_primary_10_1177_1541931218621046 crossref_primary_10_1080_1059924X_2023_2284959 crossref_primary_10_1080_17530350_2024_2409788 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_017_9426_4 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0140525X17000255 crossref_primary_10_1093_neuros_nyab337 crossref_primary_10_3233_IP_200010 crossref_primary_10_1080_03637751_2017_1375130 crossref_primary_10_3233_IP_200253 crossref_primary_10_3390_electronics12183773 crossref_primary_10_1093_ppmgov_gvac008 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11831_023_10008_z crossref_primary_10_1016_j_arr_2024_102285 crossref_primary_10_1080_15309576_2025_2493889 crossref_primary_10_1002_hrm_22267 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_bushor_2021_02_026 crossref_primary_10_1080_08898480_2024_2389779 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_024_00757_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_023_01639_8 crossref_primary_10_1002_sres_3028 crossref_primary_10_3233_IP_200224 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_cose_2018_05_015 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_021_00089_6 crossref_primary_10_1093_inthealth_ihaa007 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01286_x crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techsoc_2020_101475 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_022_00512_8 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01262_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00481_023_00761_x crossref_primary_10_1111_1559_8918_2019_01264 crossref_primary_10_3233_IP_220070 crossref_primary_10_1177_1440783319873046 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_020_02806_w crossref_primary_10_1080_14767430_2025_2481550 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_indmarman_2021_11_001 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techfore_2025_124330 crossref_primary_10_55813_gaea_rcym_v1_n2_13 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_019_00886_y crossref_primary_10_1080_02642069_2024_2369322 crossref_primary_10_1017_err_2019_8 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_022_03631_z crossref_primary_10_1016_j_osnem_2019_100058 crossref_primary_10_1093_police_paz035 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11948_021_00293_x crossref_primary_10_1146_annurev_lawsocsci_041221_023808 crossref_primary_10_1111_1468_4446_12754 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2025_2474564 crossref_primary_10_1080_02691728_2023_2286253 crossref_primary_10_1145_3274405 crossref_primary_10_3389_forgp_2025_1419403 crossref_primary_10_1136_medethics_2018_105281 crossref_primary_10_1177_0306312719849709 crossref_primary_10_1080_08874417_2022_2067794 crossref_primary_10_1177_01622439211015296 crossref_primary_10_1629_uksg_592 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01394_2 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_021_09580_9 crossref_primary_10_1287_isre_2021_1022 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951719833404 crossref_primary_10_5465_annals_2023_0230 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10670_023_00772_6 crossref_primary_10_1080_14494035_2021_1929729 crossref_primary_10_1017_S1816383122000261 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517221146122 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40319_023_01328_5 crossref_primary_10_1145_3274463 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_023_01628_x crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_024_00744_w crossref_primary_10_1007_s12312_024_01338_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_021_03305_2 crossref_primary_10_4000_12m9y crossref_primary_10_1080_1600910X_2023_2186819 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_024_02079_8 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_024_00428_3 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_024_09765_7 crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517221087855 crossref_primary_10_1109_TKDE_2023_3265598 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01515_x crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01159_3 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0034412525000241 crossref_primary_10_1145_3519264 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jrurstud_2021_07_024 crossref_primary_10_1017_lst_2019_9 crossref_primary_10_3389_fdata_2020_00031 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13198_025_02771_y crossref_primary_10_1186_s40798_024_00788_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00550_020_00509_x crossref_primary_10_1017_S0963180122000664 crossref_primary_10_1080_09585192_2021_1914129 crossref_primary_10_3917_res_211_0173 crossref_primary_10_4018_IJEGR_300773 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tele_2025_102291 crossref_primary_10_1177_01622439241269983 crossref_primary_10_1111_jep_13515 crossref_primary_10_1213_ANE_0000000000005265 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_tele_2025_102299 crossref_primary_10_1080_17439884_2025_2505555 crossref_primary_10_1177_08997640211057401 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_drugpo_2022_103826 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_019_00888_w crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infoandorg_2024_100527 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_clsr_2019_105367 crossref_primary_10_1136_bmjqs_2019_009484 crossref_primary_10_4000_ctd_7955 crossref_primary_10_5465_amj_2019_1343 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_enbuild_2024_114153 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_022_09620_y crossref_primary_10_1002_hrm_22204 crossref_primary_10_1038_s41539_025_00333_2 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00142_y crossref_primary_10_4000_reset_3429 crossref_primary_10_1080_21670811_2022_2097101 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_024_09778_2 crossref_primary_10_5325_jinfopoli_9_2019_0307 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2024_2400130 crossref_primary_10_1145_3484495 crossref_primary_10_3389_frai_2024_1320277 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951716679679 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2025_2518254 crossref_primary_10_1177_13582291241257201 crossref_primary_10_1080_17530350_2021_1882539 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951718819569 crossref_primary_10_3390_su16114854 crossref_primary_10_1080_13698230_2025_2546231 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10843_023_00332_7 crossref_primary_10_1177_20563051211008828 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11019_023_10175_7 crossref_primary_10_13037_gr_vol39_e20238027 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_018_0848_2 crossref_primary_10_1080_13683500_2024_2376208 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_artmed_2020_101901 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10551_018_3921_3 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12369_019_00612_0 crossref_primary_10_1371_journal_pdig_0000386 crossref_primary_10_1017_dap_2024_56 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0963180123000646 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10551_021_05032_7 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_025_02560_y crossref_primary_10_3390_jrfm13120317 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44206_025_00215_5 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_compcom_2023_102778 crossref_primary_10_3390_electronics13193806 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_iheduc_2025_101052 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infoandorg_2023_100498 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_025_02340_8 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11186_022_09500_5 crossref_primary_10_1145_3660344 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951720935143 crossref_primary_10_48020_mppj_2025_01_09 crossref_primary_10_1515_ijdlg_2025_0005 crossref_primary_10_1145_3546872 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11948_020_00276_4 crossref_primary_10_1108_INTR_11_2023_1041 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_025_05235_9 crossref_primary_10_1111_phpr_13019 crossref_primary_10_1177_1354856517736982 crossref_primary_10_3389_fcomp_2021_779957 crossref_primary_10_1017_dap_2024_36 crossref_primary_10_1017_apa_2021_39 crossref_primary_10_1080_21670811_2025_2450623 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11569_017_0299_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_25741292_2025_2502201 crossref_primary_10_1080_17439884_2020_1708099 crossref_primary_10_1080_09585192_2024_2441448 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11616_022_00761_9 crossref_primary_10_1086_709729 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ijhcs_2020_102493 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jbusres_2021_11_070 crossref_primary_10_1515_auto_2022_0012 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13194_025_00668_y crossref_primary_10_1007_s13194_024_00614_4 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_018_0317_3 crossref_primary_10_1093_joc_jqac050 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_hrmr_2021_100876 crossref_primary_10_59403_2yhh9pa crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951716665128 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951717730735 crossref_primary_10_3389_fgene_2022_903600 crossref_primary_10_3389_fdata_2020_519957 crossref_primary_10_1002_mar_21705 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2019_1612933 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_clsr_2017_11_002 crossref_primary_10_1145_2955091 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01617_6 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_021_09602_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_022_03485_5 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_019_00391_6 crossref_primary_10_1177_0306312720966649 crossref_primary_10_3390_admsci15070259 crossref_primary_10_3390_bioengineering12040375 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_021_01170_8 crossref_primary_10_1177_14614448221099229 crossref_primary_10_1344_bid2024_53_06 crossref_primary_10_3390_philosophies7030055 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ijlp_2018_10_002 crossref_primary_10_1055_a_1511_8595 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_eswa_2023_121138 crossref_primary_10_1057_s41599_021_01026_y crossref_primary_10_1007_s42979_022_01137_6 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12599_023_00787_x crossref_primary_10_1080_12460125_2020_1859744 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11569_024_00454_9 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12152_016_9273_8 crossref_primary_10_3354_meps13689 crossref_primary_10_3390_systems13020082 crossref_primary_10_1097_MJT_0000000000001693 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44206_025_00191_w crossref_primary_10_1177_20539517251340636 crossref_primary_10_1002_widm_1266 crossref_primary_10_1177_0163443718798901 crossref_primary_10_1177_1350508420961531 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_2943006 crossref_primary_10_1080_15265161_2024_2377107 crossref_primary_10_1108_SJME_06_2023_0154 crossref_primary_10_16995_pp_23269 crossref_primary_10_1145_3359321 crossref_primary_10_1177_0095399721998689 crossref_primary_10_60027_jelr_2025_1458 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00521_024_10868_x crossref_primary_10_1017_beq_2021_42 crossref_primary_10_1155_2022_8843000 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44206_022_00015_1 crossref_primary_10_3917_mav_122_0121 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_neunet_2020_11_009 crossref_primary_10_1093_ser_mww033 crossref_primary_10_2196_44502 crossref_primary_10_11616_asbi_1658320 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_023_01777_z crossref_primary_10_1007_s11948_023_00451_3 crossref_primary_10_1177_03063127251364509 crossref_primary_10_1177_09717218211003411 crossref_primary_10_1177_14614448231214811 crossref_primary_10_1177_13548565241262420 crossref_primary_10_1177_1529100620946707 crossref_primary_10_1080_1461670X_2025_2505001 crossref_primary_10_2139_ssrn_3753670 crossref_primary_10_1080_15309576_2024_2443140 crossref_primary_10_4000_ticetsociete_7105 crossref_primary_10_1080_09523987_2017_1408267 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_025_09829_2 crossref_primary_10_1177_1461444818804980 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12369_020_00653_w crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_021_00477_0 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2020_1863999 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11948_024_00485_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_023_00353_x crossref_primary_10_1007_s42822_021_00047_1 crossref_primary_10_1080_0960085X_2025_2558598 crossref_primary_10_1093_biolre_ioaf009 crossref_primary_10_1186_s40504_020_00101_7 crossref_primary_10_1177_17504813241271492 crossref_primary_10_46553_teo_62_147_2025_p205_234 crossref_primary_10_3917_res_211_0137 crossref_primary_10_3389_fgene_2022_902960 crossref_primary_10_4000_12m9i crossref_primary_10_1016_j_hrmr_2021_100881 crossref_primary_10_1002_asi_24819 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10791_025_09559_5 crossref_primary_10_1080_01972243_2023_2243262 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_irfa_2024_103476 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11098_023_02083_6 crossref_primary_10_1145_3555757 crossref_primary_10_1177_1461444819852589 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44163_024_00137_0 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11229_022_03933_2 crossref_primary_10_1080_1359432X_2024_2324934 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_022_09650_1 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_024_02007_w crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techfore_2023_122369 crossref_primary_10_3917_res_240_0111 crossref_primary_10_3917_rfap_167_0575 crossref_primary_10_1080_17530350_2023_2229347 crossref_primary_10_1080_1472586X_2024_2433020 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_022_09647_w crossref_primary_10_1093_geront_gnab180 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techfore_2024_123709 crossref_primary_10_1007_s40685_020_00138_6 crossref_primary_10_1080_08838151_2023_2218955 crossref_primary_10_3390_pr12112478 crossref_primary_10_1080_23268743_2022_2104352 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_infoandorg_2022_100432 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11019_019_09912_8 crossref_primary_10_1515_humaff_2022_2035 crossref_primary_10_1007_s44204_024_00238_8 crossref_primary_10_1177_00936502231206419 crossref_primary_10_3917_rimhe_050_0105 crossref_primary_10_25300_MISQ_2021_15333 crossref_primary_10_1177_02683962231181148 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10506_023_09356_9 crossref_primary_10_1093_iwc_iwaf039 crossref_primary_10_3233_IP_239005 crossref_primary_10_1109_TVCG_2023_3287585 crossref_primary_10_1080_01973533_2025_2474436 crossref_primary_10_30658_hmc_8_11 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jsis_2021_101683 crossref_primary_10_1080_14626268_2023_2228296 crossref_primary_10_1002_ecs2_2960 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techsoc_2022_102193 crossref_primary_10_1177_10242589221147228 crossref_primary_10_1007_s41649_019_00096_0 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10506_023_09347_w crossref_primary_10_1080_14681366_2023_2183983 crossref_primary_10_1177_0308518X231174026 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_023_01640_1 crossref_primary_10_1080_14797585_2020_1714878 crossref_primary_10_1080_09502386_2022_2090017 crossref_primary_10_1108_JD_05_2017_0075 crossref_primary_10_1186_s41018_021_00096_6 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11017_021_09553_0 crossref_primary_10_1017_S0963180118000130 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11604_023_01474_3 crossref_primary_10_1002_pra2_793 crossref_primary_10_1080_02681102_2021_1937473 crossref_primary_10_1177_08874034231180505 crossref_primary_10_1007_s42454_025_00069_9 crossref_primary_10_1007_s43681_022_00171_7 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_023_01642_z crossref_primary_10_1016_j_giq_2021_101578 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12599_021_00734_8 crossref_primary_10_1177_20563051251331761 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_025_00843_2 crossref_primary_10_1017_elr_2023_55 crossref_primary_10_1080_01972243_2021_1949768 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_jbusres_2024_114877 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2025_2508911 crossref_primary_10_1002_ffo2_137 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2024_2382224 crossref_primary_10_3389_fphy_2025_1538742 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_compcom_2020_102583 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12599_025_00944_4 crossref_primary_10_1080_02691728_2024_2316622 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00146_022_01532_w crossref_primary_10_3390_risks10120230 crossref_primary_10_1007_s12028_021_01427_6 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_giq_2022_101688 crossref_primary_10_1080_10447318_2024_2344146 crossref_primary_10_1002_pra2_2018_14505501144 crossref_primary_10_1002_wcc_70002 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_023_00651_6 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ipm_2019_102062 crossref_primary_10_1177_20438869221096859 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techsoc_2021_101852 crossref_primary_10_1108_INTR_02_2021_0087 crossref_primary_10_1177_00197939221131558 crossref_primary_10_1177_14648849231165855 crossref_primary_10_7202_1094209ar crossref_primary_10_1177_09636625231219853 crossref_primary_10_3389_frsc_2023_1081821 crossref_primary_10_1177_13548565241299281 crossref_primary_10_1145_3359172 crossref_primary_10_1177_23813377221115738 crossref_primary_10_13169_workorgalaboglob_17_1_0061 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_022_09596_9 crossref_primary_10_1515_commun_2022_0040 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10676_022_09632_3 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951719860542 crossref_primary_10_3917_rips1_080_0079 crossref_primary_10_1177_09579265251344630 crossref_primary_10_1111_soc4_12955 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_media_2022_102687 crossref_primary_10_3389_frai_2023_1093712 crossref_primary_10_1080_1600910X_2023_2177319 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951719863819 crossref_primary_10_1145_3453460_3453462 crossref_primary_10_1007_s11098_023_02013_6 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_neucom_2023_02_040 crossref_primary_10_1177_02666669241276427 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_techfore_2024_123925 crossref_primary_10_3145_epi_2023_mar_03 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_eswa_2022_117479 crossref_primary_10_1111_joms_12940 crossref_primary_10_1002_wom3_32 crossref_primary_10_1007_s00481_024_00811_y crossref_primary_10_1049_iet_ipr_2020_1048 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ifacol_2020_12_2120 crossref_primary_10_1080_0144929X_2021_1987522 crossref_primary_10_1007_s13347_019_00382_7 crossref_primary_10_69473_iasr_2025_28_2_204 crossref_primary_10_1108_JFBM_08_2024_0160 crossref_primary_10_1080_0144929X_2022_2078224 crossref_primary_10_1177_01447394231191940 crossref_primary_10_1080_17406315_2021_1962136 crossref_primary_10_1080_13600869_2022_2060471 crossref_primary_10_1007_s10516_024_09737_y crossref_primary_10_1007_s11023_021_09575_6 crossref_primary_10_1080_13600869_2022_2060469 crossref_primary_10_1002_job_2816 crossref_primary_10_1177_0730888417726119 crossref_primary_10_1016_j_ecolmodel_2024_110898 crossref_primary_10_1080_1369118X_2018_1478982 crossref_primary_10_1515_sosys_2021_0005 crossref_primary_10_1515_sosys_2021_0007 crossref_primary_10_1515_sosys_2021_0006 |
| Cites_doi | 10.1007/s10676-009-9198-6 10.7551/mitpress/6352.001.0001 10.7551/mitpress/9780262017367.001.0001 10.1145/1151314.1151346 10.1017/S0020859003001305 10.1016/j.artint.2006.10.011 10.7551/mitpress/9384.001.0001 10.1145/2090236.2090255 10.4159/harvard.9780674736061 10.1145/1118178.1118215 10.1177/030631296026003005 10.1145/1929887.1929902 10.1515/popets-2015-0007 10.1016/j.aos.2013.11.002 10.1145/2347736.2347755 |
| ContentType | Journal Article |
| Copyright | The Author(s) 2016 |
| Copyright_xml | – notice: The Author(s) 2016 |
| DBID | AFRWT AAYXX CITATION DOA |
| DOI | 10.1177/2053951715622512 |
| DatabaseName | Sage Journals GOLD Open Access 2024 CrossRef Directory of Open Access Journals |
| DatabaseTitle | CrossRef |
| DatabaseTitleList | CrossRef |
| Database_xml | – sequence: 1 dbid: DOA name: DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals url: https://www.doaj.org/ sourceTypes: Open Website |
| DeliveryMethod | fulltext_linktorsrc |
| Discipline | Computer Science |
| EISSN | 2053-9517 |
| ExternalDocumentID | oai_doaj_org_article_e24df3681a27440f95339729c7a4e28c 10_1177_2053951715622512 10.1177_2053951715622512 |
| GroupedDBID | 0R~ 54M 5VS AAFWJ AAJPV AASGM ABAWP ABQXT ACGFS ACROE ADBBV ADOGD AEUHG AEWDL AFCOW AFKRG AFPKN AFRWT AJUZI ALMA_UNASSIGNED_HOLDINGS ARBYP AUTPY BCNDV BDZRT CNVQW EBS EJD GROUPED_DOAJ GROUPED_SAGE_PREMIER_JOURNAL_COLLECTION H13 HMHOC HVGLF IPNFZ J8X KQ8 M~E O9- OK1 RIG SAUOL SCDPB SCNPE SFC AAYXX ACHEB CITATION |
| ID | FETCH-LOGICAL-c503t-90087482beeb6a8b3d50fb65506badc6623d24fa14bf41982329927baa74f5723 |
| IEDL.DBID | DOA |
| ISICitedReferencesCount | 1436 |
| ISICitedReferencesURI | http://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway?GWVersion=2&SrcApp=Summon&SrcAuth=ProQuest&DestLinkType=CitingArticles&DestApp=WOS_CPL&KeyUT=000418085600001&url=https%3A%2F%2Fcvtisr.summon.serialssolutions.com%2F%23%21%2Fsearch%3Fho%3Df%26include.ft.matches%3Dt%26l%3Dnull%26q%3D |
| ISSN | 2053-9517 |
| IngestDate | Fri Oct 03 12:35:00 EDT 2025 Sat Nov 29 08:11:43 EST 2025 Tue Nov 18 21:07:03 EST 2025 Tue Jun 17 22:30:17 EDT 2025 |
| IsDoiOpenAccess | true |
| IsOpenAccess | true |
| IsPeerReviewed | true |
| IsScholarly | true |
| Issue | 1 |
| Keywords | inequality discrimination spam filtering Opacity machine learning classification |
| Language | English |
| License | This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 License (http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits non-commercial use, reproduction and distribution of the work without further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access page(https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/open-access-at-sage). |
| LinkModel | DirectLink |
| MergedId | FETCHMERGED-LOGICAL-c503t-90087482beeb6a8b3d50fb65506badc6623d24fa14bf41982329927baa74f5723 |
| OpenAccessLink | https://doaj.org/article/e24df3681a27440f95339729c7a4e28c |
| ParticipantIDs | doaj_primary_oai_doaj_org_article_e24df3681a27440f95339729c7a4e28c crossref_citationtrail_10_1177_2053951715622512 crossref_primary_10_1177_2053951715622512 sage_journals_10_1177_2053951715622512 |
| PublicationCentury | 2000 |
| PublicationDate | 2016-01-05 |
| PublicationDateYYYYMMDD | 2016-01-05 |
| PublicationDate_xml | – month: 01 year: 2016 text: 2016-01-05 day: 05 |
| PublicationDecade | 2010 |
| PublicationPlace | London, England |
| PublicationPlace_xml | – name: London, England |
| PublicationTitle | Big data & society |
| PublicationYear | 2016 |
| Publisher | SAGE Publications SAGE Publishing |
| Publisher_xml | – name: SAGE Publications – name: SAGE Publishing |
| References | Gandy 2010; 12 Sandvig 2014; 10(3) Wing 2006; 49 Domingos 2012; 55 Ensmenger 2003; 48 Fourcade, Healy 2013; 38 Winograd 2006; 170 Barocas, Selbst forthcoming Grudin 2006; 13 Lee, Martin, Denner 2011; 2 Olazaran 1996; 26 Straka 2000; 11 bibr10-2053951715622512 bibr6-2053951715622512 bibr15-2053951715622512 Sandvig C (bibr26-2053951715622512) 2014; 10 Straka JW (bibr28-2053951715622512) 2000; 11 bibr7-2053951715622512 bibr19-2053951715622512 bibr23-2053951715622512 Gillespie T (bibr16-2053951715622512) 2012 bibr11-2053951715622512 bibr29-2053951715622512 Hargittai E (bibr18-2053951715622512) 2008 bibr2-2053951715622512 Eubanks V (bibr13-2053951715622512) 2012 bibr24-2053951715622512 bibr20-2053951715622512 bibr118-2053951715622512 bibr17-2053951715622512 bibr9-2053951715622512 bibr25-2053951715622512 bibr12-2053951715622512 bibr3-2053951715622512 bibr21-2053951715622512 bibr22-2053951715622512 bibr27-2053951715622512 bibr5-2053951715622512 bibr14-2053951715622512 bibr30-2053951715622512 bibr8-2053951715622512 Barocas S (bibr4-2053951715622512) bibr31-2053951715622512 |
| References_xml | – year: forthcoming article-title: Big Data’s disparate impact publication-title: California Law Review – volume: 13 start-page: 54 issue: 5 year: 2006 end-page: 57 article-title: Turing maturing: The separation of artificial intelligence and human–computer interaction publication-title: Interactions – volume: 48 start-page: 153 issue: S11 year: 2003 end-page: 180 article-title: Letting the “computer boys” take over: Technology and the politics of organizational transformation publication-title: International Review of Social History – volume: 38 start-page: 559 issue: 8 year: 2013 end-page: 572 article-title: Accounting, organizations and society classification situations: Life-chances in the neoliberal era publication-title: Accounting, Organizations and Society – volume: 11 start-page: 207 issue: 2 year: 2000 end-page: 232 article-title: A shift in the mortgage landscape: The 1990s move to automated credit evaluations publication-title: Journal of Housing Research – volume: 26 start-page: 611 issue: 3 year: 1996 end-page: 659 article-title: A sociological study of the official history of the perceptrons controversy publication-title: Social Studies of Science – volume: 2 start-page: 32 issue: 1 year: 2011 end-page: 37 article-title: Computational thinking for youth in practice publication-title: ACM Inroads – volume: 49 start-page: 33 issue: 3 year: 2006 end-page: 35 article-title: Computational thinking publication-title: Communications of the ACM – volume: 12 start-page: 29 issue: 1 year: 2010 end-page: 42 article-title: Engaging rational discrimination: Exploring reasons for placing regulatory constraints on decision support systems publication-title: Ethics and Information Technology – volume: 10(3) start-page: 1 year: 2014 end-page: 21 article-title: Seeing the sort: The aesthetic and industrial defense of “the algorithm” publication-title: Journal of the New Media Caucus – volume: 170 start-page: 1256 issue: 18 year: 2006 end-page: 1258 article-title: Shifting viewpoints: Artificial intelligence and human–computer interaction publication-title: Artificial Intelligence – volume: 55 start-page: 78 issue: 10 year: 2012 article-title: A few useful things to know about machine learning publication-title: Communications of the ACM – ident: bibr27-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr15-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1007/s10676-009-9198-6 – ident: bibr5-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr6-2053951715622512 doi: 10.7551/mitpress/6352.001.0001 – volume-title: Media Technologies: Essays on Communication, Materiality, and Society year: 2012 ident: bibr16-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr21-2053951715622512 – volume: 11 start-page: 207 issue: 2 year: 2000 ident: bibr28-2053951715622512 publication-title: Journal of Housing Research – volume: 10 start-page: 1 year: 2014 ident: bibr26-2053951715622512 publication-title: Journal of the New Media Caucus – ident: bibr2-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr25-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr19-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr118-2053951715622512 doi: 10.7551/mitpress/9780262017367.001.0001 – ident: bibr9-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr17-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1145/1151314.1151346 – start-page: 936 volume-title: Social Stratification year: 2008 ident: bibr18-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr12-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1017/S0020859003001305 – ident: bibr31-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1016/j.artint.2006.10.011 – ident: bibr7-2053951715622512 doi: 10.7551/mitpress/9384.001.0001 – ident: bibr11-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1145/2090236.2090255 – ident: bibr24-2053951715622512 doi: 10.4159/harvard.9780674736061 – ident: bibr4-2053951715622512 publication-title: California Law Review – ident: bibr30-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1145/1118178.1118215 – volume-title: Digital Dead End: Fighting for Social Justice in the Information Age year: 2012 ident: bibr13-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr22-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr23-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1177/030631296026003005 – ident: bibr20-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1145/1929887.1929902 – ident: bibr8-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1515/popets-2015-0007 – ident: bibr3-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr14-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1016/j.aos.2013.11.002 – ident: bibr29-2053951715622512 – ident: bibr10-2053951715622512 doi: 10.1145/2347736.2347755 |
| SSID | ssj0001485348 |
| Score | 2.5740244 |
| Snippet | This article considers the issue of opacity as a problem for socially consequential mechanisms of classification and ranking, such as spam filters, credit card... |
| SourceID | doaj crossref sage |
| SourceType | Open Website Enrichment Source Index Database Publisher |
| Title | How the machine ‘thinks’: Understanding opacity in machine learning algorithms |
| URI | https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2053951715622512 https://doaj.org/article/e24df3681a27440f95339729c7a4e28c |
| Volume | 3 |
| WOSCitedRecordID | wos000418085600001&url=https%3A%2F%2Fcvtisr.summon.serialssolutions.com%2F%23%21%2Fsearch%3Fho%3Df%26include.ft.matches%3Dt%26l%3Dnull%26q%3D |
| hasFullText | 1 |
| inHoldings | 1 |
| isFullTextHit | |
| isPrint | |
| journalDatabaseRights | – providerCode: PRVAON databaseName: DOAJ Directory of Open Access Journals customDbUrl: eissn: 2053-9517 dateEnd: 99991231 omitProxy: false ssIdentifier: ssj0001485348 issn: 2053-9517 databaseCode: DOA dateStart: 20140101 isFulltext: true titleUrlDefault: https://www.doaj.org/ providerName: Directory of Open Access Journals – providerCode: PRVHPJ databaseName: ROAD: Directory of Open Access Scholarly Resources customDbUrl: eissn: 2053-9517 dateEnd: 99991231 omitProxy: false ssIdentifier: ssj0001485348 issn: 2053-9517 databaseCode: M~E dateStart: 20140101 isFulltext: true titleUrlDefault: https://road.issn.org providerName: ISSN International Centre |
| link | http://cvtisr.summon.serialssolutions.com/2.0.0/link/0/eLvHCXMwrV27TsMwFLVQxcDCG1Fe8oCQGKI2fiQxG6BWHaBCiKJukZ3YbaU2RW2ADfUz4Pf6JVwnaWmRgIUlQ2TL0fV17jn29bkInVb9iLpEEgeYF3fsnWVHBpI6RsdUQTyO40yO4fHGbzaDdlvcLZT6sjlhuTxwbriKJiw21AtcmWnZGZsOKQARRr5kmgSR_ftWfbFAprLdFQZhiAVf55JA8jkFNOEDXyE2pi_FoUyufymXKwsv9U20XuBCfJl_zxZa0ck22pjVXMDFEtxB943hKwbQhgdZFqTG08l72rWnsNPJxwVuLd5VwZYQA8rGvWTevKgS0cGy3xmOeml3MN5FrXrt4brhFHURnIhXaeoIqyPHAqK0Vp4MFI151SgPuIanZBx5gGhiwox0mTLMFQGAJiGIr6T0meE-oXuolAwTvY-waxRwVBJxrjWjUkhuwHYwScA6hBa0jCozK4VRIRpua1f0Q7fQCf9u1zI6n_d4ygUzfml7ZQ0_b2elrrMX4ABh4QDhXw5QRmd22sJi7Y1_HO3gP0Y7RGsAmfJNGH6ESunoWR-j1egl7Y1HJ5kTwvP2rfYJvw7bpQ |
| linkProvider | Directory of Open Access Journals |
| openUrl | ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi%2Fenc%3AUTF-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fsummon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=How+the+machine+%E2%80%98thinks%E2%80%99%3A+Understanding+opacity+in+machine+learning+algorithms&rft.jtitle=Big+data+%26+society&rft.au=Burrell%2C+Jenna&rft.date=2016-01-05&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.eissn=2053-9517&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177%2F2053951715622512&rft.externalDocID=10.1177_2053951715622512 |
| thumbnail_l | http://covers-cdn.summon.serialssolutions.com/index.aspx?isbn=/lc.gif&issn=2053-9517&client=summon |
| thumbnail_m | http://covers-cdn.summon.serialssolutions.com/index.aspx?isbn=/mc.gif&issn=2053-9517&client=summon |
| thumbnail_s | http://covers-cdn.summon.serialssolutions.com/index.aspx?isbn=/sc.gif&issn=2053-9517&client=summon |