A Microcontroller Platform for the Rapid Prototyping of Functional Electrical Stimulation-Based Gait Neuroprostheses

Functional electrical stimulation (FES) has been used over the last decades as a method to rehabilitate lost motor functions of individuals with spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, and post‐stroke hemiparesis. Within this field, researchers in need of developing FES‐based control solutions for s...

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Published in:	Artificial organs Vol. 39; no. 5; pp. E56 - E66
Main Authors:	Luzio de Melo, Paulo, da Silva, Miguel Tavares, Martins, Jorge, Newman, Dava
Format:	Journal Article
Language:	English
Published:	United States Blackwell Publishing Ltd 01.05.2015 Wiley Subscription Services, Inc
Subjects:	Accelerometer Adult Aged Arduino microcontroller platform Closed-loop control Drop foot Electric Stimulation Therapy - economics Electric Stimulation Therapy - instrumentation Equipment Design Force sensitive resistors Functional electrical stimulation Gait Gait Disorders, Neurologic - complications Gait Disorders, Neurologic - therapy Humans Inertial measurement unit Male Multiple Sclerosis - complications Neuroprosthesis Paralysis Rapid prototyping Software Spinal cord injuries Spinal Cord Injuries - complications Stroke - complications Gait Drop foot Accelerometer Functional electrical stimulation Rapid prototyping Neuroprosthesis Inertial measurement unit Force sensitive resistors Arduino microcontroller platform Closed-loop control
ISSN:	0160-564X, 1525-1594
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Abstract	Functional electrical stimulation (FES) has been used over the last decades as a method to rehabilitate lost motor functions of individuals with spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, and post‐stroke hemiparesis. Within this field, researchers in need of developing FES‐based control solutions for specific disabilities often have to choose between either the acquisition and integration of high‐performance industry‐level systems, which are rather expensive and hardly portable, or develop custom‐made portable solutions, which despite their lower cost, usually require expert‐level electronic skills. Here, a flexible low‐cost microcontroller‐based platform for rapid prototyping of FES neuroprostheses is presented, designed for reduced execution complexity, development time, and production cost. For this reason, the Arduino open‐source microcontroller platform was used, together with off‐the‐shelf components whenever possible. The developed system enables the rapid deployment of portable FES‐based gait neuroprostheses, being flexible enough to allow simple open‐loop strategies but also more complex closed‐loop solutions. The system is based on a modular architecture that allows the development of optimized solutions depending on the desired FES applications, even though the design and testing of the platform were focused toward drop foot correction. The flexibility of the system was demonstrated using two algorithms targeting drop foot condition within different experimental setups. Successful bench testing of the device in healthy subjects demonstrated these neuroprosthesis platform capabilities to correct drop foot.
AbstractList	Functional electrical stimulation (FES) has been used over the last decades as a method to rehabilitate lost motor functions of individuals with spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, and post-stroke hemiparesis. Within this field, researchers in need of developing FES-based control solutions for specific disabilities often have to choose between either the acquisition and integration of high-performance industry-level systems, which are rather expensive and hardly portable, or develop custom-made portable solutions, which despite their lower cost, usually require expert-level electronic skills. Here, a flexible low-cost microcontroller-based platform for rapid prototyping of FES neuroprostheses is presented, designed for reduced execution complexity, development time, and production cost. For this reason, the Arduino open-source microcontroller platform was used, together with off-the-shelf components whenever possible. The developed system enables the rapid deployment of portable FES-based gait neuroprostheses, being flexible enough to allow simple open-loop strategies but also more complex closed-loop solutions. The system is based on a modular architecture that allows the development of optimized solutions depending on the desired FES applications, even though the design and testing of the platform were focused toward drop foot correction. The flexibility of the system was demonstrated using two algorithms targeting drop foot condition within different experimental setups. Successful bench testing of the device in healthy subjects demonstrated these neuroprosthesis platform capabilities to correct drop foot. Functional electrical stimulation ( FES ) has been used over the last decades as a method to rehabilitate lost motor functions of individuals with spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, and post‐stroke hemiparesis. Within this field, researchers in need of developing FES ‐based control solutions for specific disabilities often have to choose between either the acquisition and integration of high‐performance industry‐level systems, which are rather expensive and hardly portable, or develop custom‐made portable solutions, which despite their lower cost, usually require expert‐level electronic skills. Here, a flexible low‐cost microcontroller‐based platform for rapid prototyping of FES neuroprostheses is presented, designed for reduced execution complexity, development time, and production cost. For this reason, the A rduino open‐source microcontroller platform was used, together with off‐the‐shelf components whenever possible. The developed system enables the rapid deployment of portable FES ‐based gait neuroprostheses, being flexible enough to allow simple open‐loop strategies but also more complex closed‐loop solutions. The system is based on a modular architecture that allows the development of optimized solutions depending on the desired FES applications, even though the design and testing of the platform were focused toward drop foot correction. The flexibility of the system was demonstrated using two algorithms targeting drop foot condition within different experimental setups. Successful bench testing of the device in healthy subjects demonstrated these neuroprosthesis platform capabilities to correct drop foot.
Author	Luzio de Melo, Paulo da Silva, Miguel Tavares Martins, Jorge Newman, Dava
Author_xml	– sequence: 1 givenname: Paulo surname: Luzio de Melo fullname: Luzio de Melo, Paulo email: paulo.de.melo@tecnico.ulisboa.pt organization: IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Mechanical Engineering, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal – sequence: 2 givenname: Miguel Tavares surname: da Silva fullname: da Silva, Miguel Tavares organization: IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Mechanical Engineering, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal – sequence: 3 givenname: Jorge surname: Martins fullname: Martins, Jorge organization: IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Mechanical Engineering, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal – sequence: 4 givenname: Dava surname: Newman fullname: Newman, Dava organization: Aero-Astro Department, Man Vehicle Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, Cambridge, USA
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Cites_doi	10.1109/TNSRE.2002.806832 10.1109/MPRV.2008.38 10.1109/IWBE.2011.6079053 10.3109/03091900903580496 10.1111/j.1094-7159.2005.05221.x 10.1016/j.medengphy.2005.04.008 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2008.01.023 10.1161/STROKEAHA.109.560375 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2010.08.011 10.1109/TNSRE.2002.1021583 10.1016/S0165-0270(01)00407-1 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2010.11.019 10.1364/BOE.1.000385 10.1109/MCS.2007.914689 10.1191/026921599677086409 10.1016/0165-0270(95)00099-2 10.1007/978-1-4302-3883-6 10.2298/JAC0802047S 10.1016/j.medengphy.2008.05.003 10.1016/j.apmr.2009.12.024 10.1109/TIM.2010.2065770 10.1016/S0003-9993(99)90333-7
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Keywords	Gait Drop foot Accelerometer Functional electrical stimulation Rapid prototyping Neuroprosthesis Inertial measurement unit Force sensitive resistors Arduino microcontroller platform Closed-loop control
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References	Taylor PN, Burridge JH, Dunkerley AL, et al. Patients' perceptions of the Odstock Dropped Foot Stimulator (ODFS). Clin Rehabil 1999;13:439-446. Sabut SK, Kumar R, Mahadevappa M. Design of a programmable multi-pattern FES system for restoring foot drop in stroke rehabilitation. J Med Eng Technol 2010;34:217-223. Taylor PN, Burridge JH, Dunkerley AL, et al. Clinical use of the Odstock dropped foot stimulator: its effect on the speed and effort of walking. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80:1577-1583. Stein RB, Rolf R, Everaert DG, Bobet J, Chong S. Surface electrical stimulation for foot drop: control aspects and walking performance. J Autom Control 2008;18:47-52. Lyons GM, Sinkjaer T, Burridge JH, Wilcox DJ. A review of portable FES-based neural orthoses for the correction of drop foot. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2002;10:260-279. Van Der Linden J. Musicjacket-combining motion capture and vibrotactile feedback to teach violin bowing. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 2011;60:1-10. Hines AE, Crago PE, Chapman GJ, Billian C. Stimulus artifact removal in EMG from muscles adjacent to stimulated muscles. J Neurosci Methods 1996;64:55-62. Heffer LF, Fallon JB. A novel stimulus artifact removal technique for high-rate electrical stimulation. J Neurosci Methods 2008;170:277-284. Melo PL, Silva MT, Martins JM, Newman DJ, Pinto A. Modular stimulation units: a novel stimulation platform for motor rehabilitation. Artif Organs (in press). Winter D. The Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Gait: Normal, Elderly and Pathological. Waterloo, ON, Canada: University of Waterloo Press, 1991;154. Popovic MR, Thrasher TA, Zivanovic V, Takaki J, Hajek V. Neuroprosthesis for retraining reaching and grasping functions in severe hemiplegic patients. Neuromodulation 2005;8:58-72. Yeom H, Chang Y-H. Autogenic EMG-controlled functional electrical stimulation for ankle dorsiflexion control. J Neurosci Methods 2010;193:118-125. O'Keeffe DT, Lyons GM, Donnelly AE, Byrne CA. Stimulus artifact removal using a software-based two-stage peak detection algorithm. J Neurosci Methods 2001;109:137-145. Smith BT, Coiro DJ, Finson R, Betz RR, McCarthy J. Evaluation of force-sensing resistors for gait event detection to trigger electrical stimulation to improve walking in the child with cerebral palsy. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2002;10:22-29. Wheat D. Arduino Internals. Berkeley, CA: Apress, 2011. Breen PP, Corley GJ, O'Keeffe DT, Conway R, Olaighin G. A programmable and portable NMES device for drop foot correction and blood flow assist applications. Med Eng Phys 2009;31:400-408. Kesar TM, Reisman DS, Perumal R, et al. Combined effects of fast treadmill walking and functional electrical stimulation on post-stroke gait. Gait Posture 2011;33:309-313. Breen PP, O'Keeffe DT, Conway R, Lyons GM. A system for the delivery of programmable, adaptive stimulation intensity envelopes for drop foot correction applications. Med Eng Phys 2006;28:177-186. Kesar TM, Perumal R, Reisman DS, et al. Functional electrical stimulation of ankle plantarflexor and dorsiflexor muscles: effects on poststroke gait. Stroke 2009;40:3821-3827. Buechley L, Eisenberg M. The LilyPad Arduino: toward wearable engineering for everyone. IEEE Pervasive Comput 2008;7:12-15. Embrey DG, Holtz SL, Alon G, Brandsma BA, McCoy SW. Functional electrical stimulation to dorsiflexors and plantar flexors during gait to improve walking in adults with chronic hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2010;91:687-696. Taylor PN, Wright P, Burridge JH, Man GE, Swain ID. Correction of bi-lateral dropped foot using the Odstock 2 channel stimulator (O2CHS). Proc 5th Annu IFESS Conference, Aalborg, Denmark, 18-20 June, 2000. Sun R, Bouchard MB, Hillman EMC. SPLASSH: open source software for camera-based high-speed, multispectral in-vivo optical image acquisition. Biomed Opt Express 2010;1:385-397. Lynch CL, Popovic MR. Functional electrical stimulation: closed-loop control of induced muscle contractions. IEEE Control Syst Mag 2008;28:40-50. 2010; 34 2008; 170 2009; 40 2010; 1 2009; 31 2000 2011 2011; 60 2008; 18 2005; 8 2006; 28 2002; 10 2008; 28 1999; 13 2011; 33 2008; 7 2005 2014 2010; 193 1991 2010; 91 1999; 80 2001; 109 1996; 64 Taylor PN (e_1_2_8_23_1) 2000 e_1_2_8_28_1 e_1_2_8_29_1 e_1_2_8_24_1 e_1_2_8_25_1 e_1_2_8_27_1 e_1_2_8_3_1 e_1_2_8_2_1 e_1_2_8_4_1 e_1_2_8_7_1 e_1_2_8_6_1 e_1_2_8_9_1 e_1_2_8_8_1 e_1_2_8_20_1 e_1_2_8_21_1 e_1_2_8_22_1 Melo PL (e_1_2_8_26_1) e_1_2_8_17_1 e_1_2_8_18_1 e_1_2_8_19_1 e_1_2_8_13_1 e_1_2_8_36_1 e_1_2_8_14_1 e_1_2_8_35_1 e_1_2_8_15_1 e_1_2_8_16_1 Winter D (e_1_2_8_37_1) 1991 e_1_2_8_32_1 e_1_2_8_10_1 e_1_2_8_31_1 e_1_2_8_11_1 e_1_2_8_34_1 e_1_2_8_12_1 e_1_2_8_33_1 Lynch CL (e_1_2_8_5_1) 2008; 28 e_1_2_8_30_1
References_xml	– reference: O'Keeffe DT, Lyons GM, Donnelly AE, Byrne CA. Stimulus artifact removal using a software-based two-stage peak detection algorithm. J Neurosci Methods 2001;109:137-145. – reference: Yeom H, Chang Y-H. Autogenic EMG-controlled functional electrical stimulation for ankle dorsiflexion control. J Neurosci Methods 2010;193:118-125. – reference: Van Der Linden J. Musicjacket-combining motion capture and vibrotactile feedback to teach violin bowing. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 2011;60:1-10. – reference: Stein RB, Rolf R, Everaert DG, Bobet J, Chong S. Surface electrical stimulation for foot drop: control aspects and walking performance. J Autom Control 2008;18:47-52. – reference: Breen PP, Corley GJ, O'Keeffe DT, Conway R, Olaighin G. A programmable and portable NMES device for drop foot correction and blood flow assist applications. Med Eng Phys 2009;31:400-408. – reference: Taylor PN, Burridge JH, Dunkerley AL, et al. Patients' perceptions of the Odstock Dropped Foot Stimulator (ODFS). Clin Rehabil 1999;13:439-446. – reference: Lynch CL, Popovic MR. Functional electrical stimulation: closed-loop control of induced muscle contractions. IEEE Control Syst Mag 2008;28:40-50. – reference: Buechley L, Eisenberg M. The LilyPad Arduino: toward wearable engineering for everyone. IEEE Pervasive Comput 2008;7:12-15. – reference: Sabut SK, Kumar R, Mahadevappa M. Design of a programmable multi-pattern FES system for restoring foot drop in stroke rehabilitation. J Med Eng Technol 2010;34:217-223. – reference: Sun R, Bouchard MB, Hillman EMC. SPLASSH: open source software for camera-based high-speed, multispectral in-vivo optical image acquisition. Biomed Opt Express 2010;1:385-397. – reference: Popovic MR, Thrasher TA, Zivanovic V, Takaki J, Hajek V. Neuroprosthesis for retraining reaching and grasping functions in severe hemiplegic patients. Neuromodulation 2005;8:58-72. – reference: Wheat D. Arduino Internals. Berkeley, CA: Apress, 2011. – reference: Smith BT, Coiro DJ, Finson R, Betz RR, McCarthy J. Evaluation of force-sensing resistors for gait event detection to trigger electrical stimulation to improve walking in the child with cerebral palsy. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2002;10:22-29. – reference: Taylor PN, Wright P, Burridge JH, Man GE, Swain ID. Correction of bi-lateral dropped foot using the Odstock 2 channel stimulator (O2CHS). Proc 5th Annu IFESS Conference, Aalborg, Denmark, 18-20 June, 2000. – reference: Kesar TM, Perumal R, Reisman DS, et al. Functional electrical stimulation of ankle plantarflexor and dorsiflexor muscles: effects on poststroke gait. Stroke 2009;40:3821-3827. – reference: Melo PL, Silva MT, Martins JM, Newman DJ, Pinto A. Modular stimulation units: a novel stimulation platform for motor rehabilitation. Artif Organs (in press). – reference: Hines AE, Crago PE, Chapman GJ, Billian C. Stimulus artifact removal in EMG from muscles adjacent to stimulated muscles. J Neurosci Methods 1996;64:55-62. – reference: Heffer LF, Fallon JB. A novel stimulus artifact removal technique for high-rate electrical stimulation. J Neurosci Methods 2008;170:277-284. – reference: Kesar TM, Reisman DS, Perumal R, et al. Combined effects of fast treadmill walking and functional electrical stimulation on post-stroke gait. Gait Posture 2011;33:309-313. – reference: Winter D. The Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Gait: Normal, Elderly and Pathological. Waterloo, ON, Canada: University of Waterloo Press, 1991;154. – reference: Lyons GM, Sinkjaer T, Burridge JH, Wilcox DJ. A review of portable FES-based neural orthoses for the correction of drop foot. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2002;10:260-279. – reference: Embrey DG, Holtz SL, Alon G, Brandsma BA, McCoy SW. Functional electrical stimulation to dorsiflexors and plantar flexors during gait to improve walking in adults with chronic hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2010;91:687-696. – reference: Taylor PN, Burridge JH, Dunkerley AL, et al. Clinical use of the Odstock dropped foot stimulator: its effect on the speed and effort of walking. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999;80:1577-1583. – reference: Breen PP, O'Keeffe DT, Conway R, Lyons GM. A system for the delivery of programmable, adaptive stimulation intensity envelopes for drop foot correction applications. Med Eng Phys 2006;28:177-186. – year: 2011 – volume: 80 start-page: 1577 year: 1999 end-page: 1583 article-title: Clinical use of the Odstock dropped foot stimulator: its effect on the speed and effort of walking publication-title: Arch Phys Med Rehabil – volume: 109 start-page: 137 year: 2001 end-page: 145 article-title: Stimulus artifact removal using a software‐based two‐stage peak detection algorithm publication-title: J Neurosci Methods – volume: 193 start-page: 118 year: 2010 end-page: 125 article-title: Autogenic EMG‐controlled functional electrical stimulation for ankle dorsiflexion control publication-title: J Neurosci Methods – start-page: 1 year: 2011 end-page: 4 article-title: A closed‐loop drop‐foot correction system with gait event detection from the contralateral lower limb using fuzzy logic – start-page: 5119 year: 2005 end-page: 5121 article-title: Development of the FES system with neural network+PID controller for the stroke – volume: 28 start-page: 40 year: 2008 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Snippet	Functional electrical stimulation (FES) has been used over the last decades as a method to rehabilitate lost motor functions of individuals with spinal cord... Functional electrical stimulation ( FES ) has been used over the last decades as a method to rehabilitate lost motor functions of individuals with spinal cord...
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SubjectTerms	Accelerometer Adult Aged Arduino microcontroller platform Closed-loop control Drop foot Electric Stimulation Therapy - economics Electric Stimulation Therapy - instrumentation Equipment Design Force sensitive resistors Functional electrical stimulation Gait Gait Disorders, Neurologic - complications Gait Disorders, Neurologic - therapy Humans Inertial measurement unit Male Multiple Sclerosis - complications Neuroprosthesis Paralysis Rapid prototyping Software Spinal cord injuries Spinal Cord Injuries - complications Stroke - complications
Title	A Microcontroller Platform for the Rapid Prototyping of Functional Electrical Stimulation-Based Gait Neuroprostheses
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