Characterizing Hot-Water Consumption at Household and End-Use Levels Based on Smart-Meter Data

Understanding the characteristics of residential hot-water consumption can be useful for developing effective water-conservation strategies in response to increasing pressure on natural resources. This study systematically investigates residential hot-water consumption through direct monitoring of o...

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Bibliographic Details
Published in:Water (Basel) Vol. 17; no. 13; p. 1906
Main Authors: Mazzoni, Filippo, Marsili, Valentina, Alvisi, Stefano
Format: Journal Article
Language:English
Published: Basel MDPI AG 01.07.2025
Subjects:
Automation
Data collection
Energy consumption
Environmental aspects
Fixtures
Heating
Hot water
Households
Italy
Methods
Smart meters
Water
Water conservation
Water use
Water-meters
Italy
ISSN:2073-4441, 2073-4441
Online Access:Get full text
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Summary:Understanding the characteristics of residential hot-water consumption can be useful for developing effective water-conservation strategies in response to increasing pressure on natural resources. This study systematically investigates residential hot-water consumption through direct monitoring of over 40 domestic fixtures (belonging to six different end-use categories) in five Italian households, recorded over a period ranging from approximately two weeks to nearly four months, and using smart meters with 5 min resolution. A multi-step analysis is applied—at both household and end-use levels, explicitly differentiating tap uses by purpose and location—to (i) quantify daily per capita hot-water consumption, (ii) calculate hot-water ratios, and (iii) assess daily profiles. The results show an average total water consumption of 106.7 L/person/day, with at least 26.1% attributed to hot water. In addition, daily profiles reveal distinct patterns across end uses: hot- and cold-water consumption at kitchen sinks are not aligned over time (with cold water peaking before meals and hot water used predominantly afterward), while bathroom taps show more synchronized use and a marked evening peak in hot-water consumption. Study findings—along with the related open-access dataset—provide a valuable benchmark based on field measurements to support in the process of water demand modeling and the development of targeted demand-management strategies.
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ISSN:2073-4441
2073-4441
DOI:10.3390/w17131906