A Systematic Review of Cooperation in Multi‐User Virtual Reality Learning Environments

ABSTRACT Background The role of virtual reality (VR) in education is increasing, which raises questions about VR learning in multi‐user settings. While collaborative VR learning, characterised by shared goals and low division of labour, is well‐researched, cooperative VR learning, which emphasises r...

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Vydáno v:Journal of computer assisted learning Ročník 41; číslo 5
Hlavní autoři: Wehrmann, Frank, Zender, Raphael
Médium: Journal Article
Jazyk:angličtina
Vydáno: Chichester, UK John Wiley & Sons, Inc 01.10.2025
Wiley Subscription Services, Inc
Témata:
Availability
Career and Technical Education
Collaboration
Cooperation
CSCL
Didacticism
Education
Educational Theories
Educational theory
inclusion
Individualized Instruction
Learning
Literature reviews
User experience
Virtual reality
ISSN:0266-4909, 1365-2729
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Abstract ABSTRACT Background The role of virtual reality (VR) in education is increasing, which raises questions about VR learning in multi‐user settings. While collaborative VR learning, characterised by shared goals and low division of labour, is well‐researched, cooperative VR learning, which emphasises role differentiation and task interdependence, remains underexplored. This oversight is significant, as cooperation holds unique potential for education and inclusion by accommodating diverse learner abilities and perspectives. Objectives This paper explores diverse multi‐user learning approaches in VR Learning Applications (VRLAs), emphasising cooperation over collaboration. It provides an overview of multi‐user VRLAs, their user engagement types, target groups, subjects, availability, and educational theory integration. Distinguishing between cooperative, collaborative, and social engagement, it also identifies asymmetric cooperation in multi‐user experiences. Methods A systematic literature review was conducted using the PRISMA framework, identifying VRLAs in educational settings which feature multi‐user interactions. The review included 89 studies published since 2013, categorising VRLAs by interaction mode, symmetry, presence of a VR instructor, availability, and presence of didactic justification. Results and Conclusions Collaborative VR remains the dominant mode (44%), but cooperative VRLAs (37%) see growing adoption. Collaborative designs often rely on constructivist educational theory, while cooperative designs tend to leverage role specialisation to mirror real‐world practices, particularly in vocational training and task‐specific scenarios. However, 84% of VRLAs are inaccessible, limiting their broader application. Many studies lack robust didactic justifications, underscoring the need for clearer frameworks.
AbstractList Background The role of virtual reality (VR) in education is increasing, which raises questions about VR learning in multi‐user settings. While collaborative VR learning, characterised by shared goals and low division of labour, is well‐researched, cooperative VR learning, which emphasises role differentiation and task interdependence, remains underexplored. This oversight is significant, as cooperation holds unique potential for education and inclusion by accommodating diverse learner abilities and perspectives. Objectives This paper explores diverse multi‐user learning approaches in VR Learning Applications (VRLAs), emphasising cooperation over collaboration. It provides an overview of multi‐user VRLAs, their user engagement types, target groups, subjects, availability, and educational theory integration. Distinguishing between cooperative, collaborative, and social engagement, it also identifies asymmetric cooperation in multi‐user experiences. Methods A systematic literature review was conducted using the PRISMA framework, identifying VRLAs in educational settings which feature multi‐user interactions. The review included 89 studies published since 2013, categorising VRLAs by interaction mode, symmetry, presence of a VR instructor, availability, and presence of didactic justification. Results and Conclusions Collaborative VR remains the dominant mode (44%), but cooperative VRLAs (37%) see growing adoption. Collaborative designs often rely on constructivist educational theory, while cooperative designs tend to leverage role specialisation to mirror real‐world practices, particularly in vocational training and task‐specific scenarios. However, 84% of VRLAs are inaccessible, limiting their broader application. Many studies lack robust didactic justifications, underscoring the need for clearer frameworks.
ABSTRACT Background The role of virtual reality (VR) in education is increasing, which raises questions about VR learning in multi‐user settings. While collaborative VR learning, characterised by shared goals and low division of labour, is well‐researched, cooperative VR learning, which emphasises role differentiation and task interdependence, remains underexplored. This oversight is significant, as cooperation holds unique potential for education and inclusion by accommodating diverse learner abilities and perspectives. Objectives This paper explores diverse multi‐user learning approaches in VR Learning Applications (VRLAs), emphasising cooperation over collaboration. It provides an overview of multi‐user VRLAs, their user engagement types, target groups, subjects, availability, and educational theory integration. Distinguishing between cooperative, collaborative, and social engagement, it also identifies asymmetric cooperation in multi‐user experiences. Methods A systematic literature review was conducted using the PRISMA framework, identifying VRLAs in educational settings which feature multi‐user interactions. The review included 89 studies published since 2013, categorising VRLAs by interaction mode, symmetry, presence of a VR instructor, availability, and presence of didactic justification. Results and Conclusions Collaborative VR remains the dominant mode (44%), but cooperative VRLAs (37%) see growing adoption. Collaborative designs often rely on constructivist educational theory, while cooperative designs tend to leverage role specialisation to mirror real‐world practices, particularly in vocational training and task‐specific scenarios. However, 84% of VRLAs are inaccessible, limiting their broader application. Many studies lack robust didactic justifications, underscoring the need for clearer frameworks.
Author Wehrmann, Frank
Zender, Raphael
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  surname: Zender
  fullname: Zender, Raphael
  organization: Zeppelin Universität
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Notes ‐
Connection to the special issue theme
This paper aligns with the special issue theme by addressing how Virtual Reality Learning Applications (VRLAs) foster personalisation through role differentiation in cooperative learning, enhance engagement via immersive and interactive environments, and drive innovative pedagogies by leveraging asymmetric structures and multi‐user interactions. By exploring the underrepresented domain of cooperative VR, this study contributes to advancing technology‐enhanced learning practices and addressing inclusivity challenges within VR education, ensuring diverse learner needs are met and the digital divide is minimised.
Large parts of the text were rewritten (1) The literature review was updated by adding all the new papers written between 13 March 2024 and 16 December 2024. (2) In line with the update, most of the results, discussion, and conclusion sections were rewritten completely and expanded. (3) Several new figures were introduced: The original paper featured two figures; the new version features 10. (4) Research Question 5 was added and answered in a new Section
2024
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Snippet ABSTRACT Background The role of virtual reality (VR) in education is increasing, which raises questions about VR learning in multi‐user settings. While...
Background The role of virtual reality (VR) in education is increasing, which raises questions about VR learning in multi‐user settings. While collaborative VR...
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SubjectTerms Availability
Career and Technical Education
Collaboration
Cooperation
CSCL
Didacticism
Education
Educational Theories
Educational theory
inclusion
Individualized Instruction
Learning
Literature reviews
User experience
Virtual reality
Title A Systematic Review of Cooperation in Multi‐User Virtual Reality Learning Environments
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Volume 41
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