Prudence in the Anthropocene
The deliberative judgment referred to in the history of rhetoric as phronesis, practical wisdom, or prudence might have prevented the existential crisis of the Anthropocene era, but it seems unable to reverse the damage or provide a basis for ecological sustainability. This essay offers several cons...
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| Vydáno v: | Journal for the history of rhetoric (Print) Ročník 27; číslo 2; s. 204 - 235 |
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12.07.2024
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| Abstract | The deliberative judgment referred to in the history of rhetoric as phronesis, practical wisdom, or prudence might have prevented the existential crisis of the Anthropocene era, but it seems unable to reverse the damage or provide a basis for ecological sustainability. This essay offers several considerations for adapting this traditional model of judgment to take up the new challenge. The normative, calculative, and performative modalities of prudential thinking, along with insights provided by the Chinese philosopher Xu Changfu, provide a basis for examining political, technocratic, ethical, and artistic mentalities for addressing global warming, assessing their strengths and weaknesses in respect to effective advocacy, and learning from them to improve and expand practical wisdom. Special emphasis is given to paying attention to art, artists, and aesthetic values on behalf of developing an attitude of ecological mindfulness. |
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| AbstractList | The deliberative judgment referred to in the history of rhetoric as phronesis, practical wisdom, or prudence might have prevented the existential crisis of the Anthropocene era, but it seems unable to reverse the damage or provide a basis for ecological sustainability. This essay offers several considerations for adapting this traditional model of judgment to take up the new challenge. The normative, calculative, and performative modalities of prudential thinking, along with insights provided by the Chinese philosopher Xu Changfu, provide a basis for examining political, technocratic, ethical, and artistic mentalities for addressing global warming, assessing their strengths and weaknesses in respect to effective advocacy, and learning from them to improve and expand practical wisdom. Special emphasis is given to paying attention to art, artists, and aesthetic values on behalf of developing an attitude of ecological mindfulness. |
| Author | Hariman, Robert |
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| Cites_doi | 10.5325/philrhet.45.2.0213 10.1177/10892680211023063 10.2307/2586111 |
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| Copyright | Copyright © 2024 by The Pennsylvania State University. All rights reserved. |
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| References | Rickert, Thomas. 2013. Ambient Rhetoric: The Attunements of Rhetorical Being. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. 2020. Fratelli Tutti (“Encyclical Letter Fratelli Tutti of the Holy Father Francis on Fraternity and Social Friendship”). The Holy See, October 3. https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20201003_enciclica-fratelli-tutti.html. Hariman, Robert. 1995. Political Style: The Artistry of Power. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 17. Subsidiarity also is evident in Fratelli Tutti (Francis 2020, ¶¶142, 175, 187). Halliwell, Stephen. 1996. “The Challenge of Rhetoric to Political and Ethical Theory in Aristotle.” In Essays on Aristotle’s Rhetoric, ed. Amelie OksenbergRorty, 175–90. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Hariman, Robert, and John LouisLucaites. 2007. No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 8. For a review of the classical concept, see Hariman (2001, 199–209). For more on Cicero’s performative prudence, see Hariman (1995, 95–140). 9. For one example from the trade press, see Schwartz and Sharpe (2010), which contrasts Aristotelian prudence with both rule-bound (regulatory) and market (incentive) models. For a much more philosophical discussion, see Dunne (1993). Griffin, James. 1986. Well-Being: Its Meaning, Measurement, and Moral Importance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2016. The Public Image: Photography and Civic Spectatorship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. “Wicked Problem.” 2024. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wicked_problem&oldid=1193407490. Sandel, Michael J. 1982. Liberalism and the Limits of Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2001. “Decorum.” In Encyclopedia of Rhetoric, ed. Thomas O.Sloane, 199–209. New York: Oxford University Press. Skinner, Quentin. 2002a. “Ambrogio Lorenzetti and the Portrayal of Virtuous Government.” In Renaissance Virtues, vol. 2 of Visions of Politics, 39–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1. Lois Self summarizes the close relationship between rhetoric and prudence in classical antiquity and the Renaissance: “Rhetoric is an art, phronesis an intellectual virtue; both are special ‘reasoned capacities’ which properly function in the world of probability; both are normative processes in that they involve rational principles of choice-making; both have general applicability but always require careful analysis of particulars in determining the best response to each specific situation; both ideally take into account the wholeness of human nature (rhetoric in its three appeals, phronesis in its balance of desire and reason); and finally, both have social utility and responsibility in that both treat matters of the public good” (1979, 135). Richard Brownstein makes a similar comparison: “[Rhetoric and phronesis] have the same ultimate objective, the prakton agathon; for both this is the product of their first objective, judgment or choice; both deal with the contingent; in both reasoning starts from probabilistic premises, but each is ‘more than a reasoned state’; and both produce their ends by means of deliberation. It is clear that rhetoric externalizes, and makes public and social, the internal and personal characteristics of phronesis” (1974, 23; see also Halliwell 1996). With respect to the twentieth-century academic discipline, a key text that grounded rhetoric in situated judgment is Edwin Black’s Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method (1965). Aristotle. 1985. The Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by TerrenceIrwin. Indianapolis: Hackett. Xu Changfu . 2014a. “Ecological Tension: Between Minimum and Maximum Changes.”Comparative Philosophy5, no. 2, article 7. Francis. 2015. Laudato Sí (“Encyclical Letter Laudato Sí of the Holy Father Francis on Care for Our Common Home”). The Holy See, May 24. https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html. “ESG Investing.” n.d. RBC Global Asset Management. https://institutional.rbcgam.com/en/us/responsible-investment/environmental-social-governance. 16. For the best demonstration of how Francis has integrated these discourses with Roman Catholic doctrine, something that more conservative Catholics deem impossible, see the encyclical Fratelli Tutti (Francis 2020). 29. “‘In nature, there is no way to represent a “whole group” within a single value system,’ Peter continued. ‘Life moves toward diversity, toward resilience. Everything is negotiation, compromise, collaboration.’ On this we agreed. ‘Imagine if instead the requirement of the exercise was to diversify,’ he said, ‘to come up with a thousand solutions to a single problem.’ I could imagine it. In fact, I’ve come to believe it’s exactly what’s required of us” (Wells 2021, 195). 2. The term Anthropocene refers to the period of significant human impact on the geology and ecology of Earth, with particular attention to global warming (see, e.g., Ellis 2018). Although not yet an official label of geological periodization, the term has widespread uptake within the scientific, government, and public domains. Although criticized in academic debates for distributing responsibility while masking culpability (e.g., of capitalism, First World societies, extraction industries, and political interests), it remains superior to proposed alternatives (e.g., Capitalocene, Chthulucene) as a means of public discussion, scientific organization, and collective mobilization. Rejecting these alternatives is a small example of a prudential approach to the crisis. Demos, T. J. 2016. Decolonizing Nature: Contemporary Art and the Politics of Ecology. Berlin: Sternberg. Reiss, Julie. 2019. Art, Theory, and Practice in the Anthropocene. Wilmington, DE: Vernon Press. 13. For a hardcore example that does not even gesture toward a public audience, see “Summary for Policymakers” (2023). This document is the executive summary of the most recent and cumulating report of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which is one of the major institutional sources of climate science assessment (see AR6 Synthesis Report2023). 2023. Laudate Deum (“Apostolic Exhortation Laudate Deum of the Holy Father Francis to All People of Good Will on the Climate Crisis”). The Holy See, October 4. https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/apost_exhortations/documents/20231004-laudate-deum.html. Schwartz, Barry, and KennethSharpe. 2010. Practical Wisdom: The Right Way to Do the Right Thing. New York: Riverhead Books. Morton, Timothy. 2018. All Art Is Ecological. London: Penguin Classics. Brownstein, Richard. 1974. “Aristotle and the Rhetorical Process.” In Rhetoric: A Tradition in Transition, ed. WalterFisher, 19–33. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. 2020. Beyond the World’s End: Arts of Living at the Crossing. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. 28. For an account of the prudential thinking being developed for sustainability within global warming by those living in and studying the great boreal forest spanning the northern tier of the planet, see Rawlence (2022). 7. The ubiquity of self-interested calculation accounts for the ambiguity and frequent variation in the use of the term prudence, which can mean either thinking in terms of expediency or thinking in terms of expediency plus normative principles. Smith, Noah. 2022. “Oxfam Serves up a Lot of Dodgy Statistics.”Noahpinion, June 15. https://www.noahpinion.blog/p/oxfam-serves-up-a-lot-of-dodgy-statistics. 19. For example: “No important change in ethics was ever accomplished without an internal change in our intellectual emphasis, loyalties, affections, and convictions” (Leopold 1949/2020, 198). “[W]e [should] engage in more than environmentalist virtue, political keenness, or useful and necessary activism. We must ground ourselves in the dark of our deepest selves” (Snyder 1990, xi). “How, in our modern world, can we find our way to understand the earth as a gift again, to make our relations with the world sacred again?” (Kimmerer 2013, 31). This orientation is a strong connection with the ethical mentality, especially as articulated by Pope Francis: “In calling to mind the figure of Saint Francis of Assisi, we come to realize that a healthy relationship with creation is one dimension of overall personal conversion, which entails the recognition of our errors, sins, faults and failures, and leads to heartfelt repentance and desire to change. The Australian bishops spoke of the importance of such conversion for achieving reconciliation with creation: ‘To achieve such reconciliation, we must examine our lives and acknowledge the ways in which we have harmed God’s creation through our actions and our failure to act. We need to experience a conversion, or change of heart’” (Francis 2015, ¶153). Cicero, Marcus Tullius. 1962. Orator. Translated by H. M.Hubbell. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Snyder, Gary. 1990. The Practice of the Wild. Berkeley: Counterpoint Press. 5. I use incommensurability according to its common usage in political theory since the term was advanced in Rorty (1989). For detailed discussion of the term that ultimately remains consistent with my usage, see Griffin (1986; see also Larmore 1989). Heidlebaugh (2001) brings various elements of classical rhetoric to bear on the topic. Rawlence, Ben. 2022. The Treeline: The Last Forest and the Future of Life on Earth. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Nash, James A. 1991. Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility. Nashville: Abingdon Press. 26. Morton’s (2018) brief for ecological art has the same philosophical provenance. AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023 . 2023. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle. Dierksmeier, Claus. 2022. “Why Beauty Is Indispensable to the Common Good.”Renovatio: The Journal of Zaytuna College, March 30. https://renovatio.zaytuna.edu (2025091809530940200_r67) 2014; 5 (2025091809530940200_r3) 1972/2013 (2025091809530940200_r59) 1990 (2025091809530940200_r23) 2016 (2025091809530940200_r47) 2019 (2025091809530940200_r36) 2013 (2025091809530940200_r55) 2002 (2025091809530940200_r49) 1989 (2025091809530940200_r21) 1999; 93 (2025091809530940200_r37) 2021; 25 (2025091809530940200_r45) 1991 (2025091809530940200_r39) 1989 (2025091809530940200_r25) 1996 (2025091809530940200_r33) 2023 (2025091809530940200_r63) 2007 (2025091809530940200_r4) 1965 (2025091809530940200_r24) 1986 (2025091809530940200_r35) 2021; 60 (2025091809530940200_r64) 1983 Aristotle (2025091809530940200_r1) 1985 (2025091809530940200_r68) 2014; 5 (2025091809530940200_r51) 1999 (2025091809530940200_r30) 2024; 20 (2025091809530940200_r31) 2007 2025091809530940200_r43 (2025091809530940200_r26) 1995 (2025091809530940200_r20) 1986 (2025091809530940200_r53) 1979; 12 (2025091809530940200_r7) 1962 (2025091809530940200_r10) 2017 (2025091809530940200_r41) 1949/2020 (2025091809530940200_r15) 2018 2025091809530940200_r19 2025091809530940200_r8 (2025091809530940200_r54) 2002 (2025091809530940200_r34) 2001 (2025091809530940200_r48) 2013 (2025091809530940200_r38) 2006 (2025091809530940200_r65) 2021 (2025091809530940200_r27) 2001 (2025091809530940200_r60) 2001 2025091809530940200_r6 2025091809530940200_r16 2025091809530940200_r17 2025091809530940200_r18 2025091809530940200_r2 2025091809530940200_r12 (2025091809530940200_r40) 2012; 45 2025091809530940200_r56 2025091809530940200_r57 2025091809530940200_r14 2025091809530940200_r58 (2025091809530940200_r69) 2019 (2025091809530940200_r44) 2018 (2025091809530940200_r52) 2010 (2025091809530940200_r29) 2022; 26 (2025091809530940200_r9) 2016 (2025091809530940200_r13) 1993 (2025091809530940200_r28) 2003 (2025091809530940200_r5) 1974 (2025091809530940200_r22) 1987 2025091809530940200_r62 (2025091809530940200_r50) 1982 (2025091809530940200_r11) 2020 (2025091809530940200_r32) 2016 (2025091809530940200_r42) 1532/1988 2025091809530940200_r61 2025091809530940200_r66 (2025091809530940200_r46) 2022 |
| References_xml | – reference: 18. The thousands of examples include the Climate Reality Project (“11 Visual Artists Taking on the Climate Crisis” 2022), Artists and Climate Change (https://artistsandclimatechange.com), If Not Us, Then Who? (https://ifnotusthenwho.me), Liberate Tate (https://liberatetate.org.uk), individual artists such as Cannupa Hanska Luger (https://www.cannupahanska.com/social-engagement/mirror-shield-project) and Jenny Kendler (https://jennykendler.com/home.html), and work discussed by, among others, T. J. Demos (2016, 2017, 2018). For a start on the many discussions in art history, see Reiss (2019). – reference: ________. 2023. “How Not to Be Fooled by Viral Charts.”Noahpinion, September 12. https://www.noahpinion.blog/p/how-not-to-be-fooled-by-viral-charts?utm_medium=email. – reference: “Carbon Emissions and Income Inequality: Technical Note.” 2015. Oxfam Technical Briefing. Oxfam International, December. https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/582545/tb-carbon-emissions-inequality-methodology-021215-en.pdf;sequence=2. – reference: Kristjánsson, Kristján, BlaineFowers, CatherineDarnell, and DavidPollard. 2021. “Phronesis (Practical Wisdom) as a Type of Contextual Integrative Thinking.”Review of General Psychology25, no. 3:239–57. – reference: 24. For a brief reference to a relationship between beauty and rhetoric, see Gadamer (1986, 17–19, 117). See also Hariman (2024). – reference: Leopold, Aldo. 1949/2020. A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There. With an introduction by BarbaraKingsolver. New York: Oxford University Press. – reference: ________. 2003. Prudence: Classical Virtue, Postmodern Practice. University Park: Penn State University Press. – reference: 16. For the best demonstration of how Francis has integrated these discourses with Roman Catholic doctrine, something that more conservative Catholics deem impossible, see the encyclical Fratelli Tutti (Francis 2020). – reference: 3. This essay draws directly on the account of prudence that is set out at more length in Hariman (2003, 1–32, 287–321). – reference: Lanham, Richard A. 2006. The Economics of Attention: Style and Substance in the Age of Information. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. – reference: Galston, William A. 1999. “Value Pluralism and Liberal Political Theory.”American Political Science Review93, no. 4:769–78. – reference: Dierksmeier, Claus. 2022. “Why Beauty Is Indispensable to the Common Good.”Renovatio: The Journal of Zaytuna College, March 30. https://renovatio.zaytuna.edu/article/why-beauty-is-indispensable-to-common-good. – reference: Larmore, Charles E. 1989. Patterns of Moral Complexity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: 4. Even these conventions within the discourse of prudence do not quite capture the intelligence. Eugene Garver zeros in on the problem when he asks “whether one can find principles midway between principles and consequences.” He then distinguishes between an “ethics of principles” and an “ethics of consequences” and between “algorithmic” and “heuristic” thinking in order to situate prudential reasoning between them as a distinctive modality of reason that is “always open to debate and to refutation by practical failure” and, thus, will “always appear a weak kind of reasoning measured against standards of theoretical reason, a frustrating waste of time to hard-headed politicians and scientific technocrats” (1987, 12, 16). Garver sets out to find a distinctive kind of (midway) rules, but they remain elusive. One reason is, I believe, that they cannot be articulated as rules alone rather than as something like scripts in performance. In any case, even prudential conventions that seem to feature only case-based reasoning probably should be seen as somewhat mistaken representations of a more complex process. – reference: “Summary for Policymakers.” 2023. In AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/syr/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_SYR_SPM.pdf. – reference: 28. For an account of the prudential thinking being developed for sustainability within global warming by those living in and studying the great boreal forest spanning the northern tier of the planet, see Rawlence (2022). – reference: Halliwell, Stephen. 1996. “The Challenge of Rhetoric to Political and Ethical Theory in Aristotle.” In Essays on Aristotle’s Rhetoric, ed. Amelie OksenbergRorty, 175–90. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. – reference: van Eck, Caroline. 2007. Classical Rhetoric and the Visual Arts in Early Modern Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: 9. For one example from the trade press, see Schwartz and Sharpe (2010), which contrasts Aristotelian prudence with both rule-bound (regulatory) and market (incentive) models. For a much more philosophical discussion, see Dunne (1993). – reference: Heidlebaugh, Nola J. 2001. Judgment, Rhetoric, and the Problem of Incommensurability: Recalling Practical Wisdom. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. – reference: ________. 2024. “A Bunch of Handy Charts about Climate Change.”Noahpinion, February 13. https://www.noahpinion.blog/p/a-bunch-of-handy-charts-about-climate?publication_id=35345&utm_campaign=email-post-title&r=beb3j. – reference: Sandel, Michael J. 1982. Liberalism and the Limits of Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Machiavelli, Niccolò. 1532/1988. Machiavelli: The Prince. Edited by QuentinSkinner. Translated by RussellPrince. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Francis. 2015. Laudato Sí (“Encyclical Letter Laudato Sí of the Holy Father Francis on Care for Our Common Home”). The Holy See, May 24. https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html. – reference: 15. See also Laudate Deum (Francis 2023), particularly with regard to the critiques of the “growing technocratic paradigm” and the weakness of international politics (¶20). Examples could be provided from other religious and secular traditions. For an early statement by a Protestant theologian, see Nash (1991), which calls for cultivating the “ecological virtues” of sustainability, adaptability, relationality, frugality, equity, solidarity, biodiversity, sufficiency, and humility. – reference: Rawlence, Ben. 2022. The Treeline: The Last Forest and the Future of Life on Earth. New York: St. Martin’s Press. – reference: Climate Equality: A Planet for the 99% . 2023. Oxfam International, November 20. https://policy-practice.oxfam.org/resources/climate-equality-a-planet-for-the-99-621551. – reference: Self, Lois S. 1979. “Rhetoric and Phronesis: The Aristotelian Ideal.”Philosophy and Rhetoric12, no. 2:130–45. – reference: Cicero, Marcus Tullius. 1962. Orator. Translated by H. M.Hubbell. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. – reference: Snyder, Gary. 1990. The Practice of the Wild. Berkeley: Counterpoint Press. – reference: 13. For a hardcore example that does not even gesture toward a public audience, see “Summary for Policymakers” (2023). This document is the executive summary of the most recent and cumulating report of the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which is one of the major institutional sources of climate science assessment (see AR6 Synthesis Report2023). – reference: Ellis, Erle C. 2018. Anthropocene: A Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. – reference: ________. 2020. Fratelli Tutti (“Encyclical Letter Fratelli Tutti of the Holy Father Francis on Fraternity and Social Friendship”). The Holy See, October 3. https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/papa-francesco_20201003_enciclica-fratelli-tutti.html. – reference: “Wicked Problem.” 2024. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wicked_problem&oldid=1193407490. – reference: 11. This approach is in line with Xu’s observation: “To some extent, the success of the West lies in exercising practical wisdom to maintain a balance of divergent theories and practices” (Xu 2014b). These mentalities are not limited to the West, but my examples reflect how the West has provided strong inflections owing at least to its historical ascension with modernization. One might add, however, that any program for sustainability needs to contain some elements of prudence to be, well, sustainable; those that are radically devoid of prudential adjustment would either die off quickly or become monstrous and, thus, highly consequential for a while, but only that. This perspective applies across the West-and-the-rest distinction (see also Xu 2014a). – reference: Morton, Timothy. 2018. All Art Is Ecological. London: Penguin Classics. – reference: Nash, James A. 1991. Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility. Nashville: Abingdon Press. – reference: 6. For a good discussion of the relationship between the ideas of value pluralism in moral philosophy and those in political theory, see Galston (1999). Galston invokes prudence to resolve the friction between liberal universalism and value pluralism but does not develop prudence beyond that. Also relevant are the arguments in Sandel (1982) and Walzer (1983). – reference: ________. 2019. Marxism, China and Globalization. Berlin: Parodos Verlag. – reference: “11 Visual Artists Taking on the Climate Crisis.” 2022. Climate Reality Project, February 18. https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/11-visual-artists-taking-climate-crisis. – reference: ________. 2023. Laudate Deum (“Apostolic Exhortation Laudate Deum of the Holy Father Francis to All People of Good Will on the Climate Crisis”). The Holy See, October 4. https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/apost_exhortations/documents/20231004-laudate-deum.html. – reference: Hawhee, Debra. 2023. A Sense of Urgency: How the Climate Crisis Is Changing Rhetoric. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. – reference: 19. For example: “No important change in ethics was ever accomplished without an internal change in our intellectual emphasis, loyalties, affections, and convictions” (Leopold 1949/2020, 198). “[W]e [should] engage in more than environmentalist virtue, political keenness, or useful and necessary activism. We must ground ourselves in the dark of our deepest selves” (Snyder 1990, xi). “How, in our modern world, can we find our way to understand the earth as a gift again, to make our relations with the world sacred again?” (Kimmerer 2013, 31). This orientation is a strong connection with the ethical mentality, especially as articulated by Pope Francis: “In calling to mind the figure of Saint Francis of Assisi, we come to realize that a healthy relationship with creation is one dimension of overall personal conversion, which entails the recognition of our errors, sins, faults and failures, and leads to heartfelt repentance and desire to change. The Australian bishops spoke of the importance of such conversion for achieving reconciliation with creation: ‘To achieve such reconciliation, we must examine our lives and acknowledge the ways in which we have harmed God’s creation through our actions and our failure to act. We need to experience a conversion, or change of heart’” (Francis 2015, ¶153). – reference: 22. I suggest how the uncanny is an essential part of formal experience and relevant to living amid catastrophe in Hariman (2022). – reference: ________. 2002b. “Ambrogio Lorenzetti on the Power and Glory of Republics.” In Renaissance Virtues, vol. 2 of Visions of Politics, 93–117. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Steiner, Wendy. 2001. Venus in Exile: The Rejection of Beauty in Twentieth-Century Art. New York: Free Press. – reference: Dunne, Joseph. 1993. Back to the Rough Ground: “Phronesis” and “Techne” in Modern Philosophy and Aristotle. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. – reference: ________. 2016. The Public Image: Photography and Civic Spectatorship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. – reference: Smith, Noah. 2022. “Oxfam Serves up a Lot of Dodgy Statistics.”Noahpinion, June 15. https://www.noahpinion.blog/p/oxfam-serves-up-a-lot-of-dodgy-statistics. – reference: 20. I lay out this argument with an example from American politics in Hariman (2003, 305–12). – reference: Aristotle. 1985. The Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by TerrenceIrwin. Indianapolis: Hackett. – reference: Brownstein, Richard. 1974. “Aristotle and the Rhetorical Process.” In Rhetoric: A Tradition in Transition, ed. WalterFisher, 19–33. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. – reference: 12. An earlier version of the graph reproduced in fig. 1 was released by Oxfam in 2015 and widely reproduced. It has been criticized for distortions, notably by Noah Smith (2022, 2023, 2024). I consider Smith a first-rate, reputable independent analyst providing useful corrections regarding those who err on the side of advocacy, but he slides into hectoring on this one. The 2015 graph did have a lot of problems, not least that it was based on 2007 data, and the 2023 graph (shown in fig. 1) still is simplistic even though it is based on 2019 data. That said, Smith’s critique suffers from dismissive innuendos (“leftists”) rather than assessing the truth of the claim, inattention to the 2015 Oxfam disclaimer about the graph (“Carbon Emissions and Income Inequality” 2015), inattention to bias in some of his own preferred sources, and the fact that his complaints about speculative assumptions and data smoothing apply to many, many, many graphs in economics and especially regarding defenses of the status quo. The current, updated graph was constructed in conjunction with the Swedish Environmental Group and appears in the most current Oxfam report (Climate Equality2023). I am confident that it represents an actual, strong, structural imbalance, even as the causal drivers of global warming are shifting from the United States and Europe to become distributed across a wider swath of nations (Smith 2024). In any case, the two graphs are good examples of the reach of visual data displays on behalf of environmental advocacy. – reference: Reiss, Julie. 2019. Art, Theory, and Practice in the Anthropocene. Wilmington, DE: Vernon Press. – reference: Xu Changfu . 2014a. “Ecological Tension: Between Minimum and Maximum Changes.”Comparative Philosophy5, no. 2, article 7. – reference: Black, Edwin. 1965. Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method. New York: Macmillan. – reference: ________. 2017. Against the Anthropocene: Visual Culture and Environment Today. Berlin: Sternberg. – reference: Kimmerer, Robin Wall. 2013. Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants. Minneapolis, MN: Milkweed Editions. – reference: 8. For a review of the classical concept, see Hariman (2001, 199–209). For more on Cicero’s performative prudence, see Hariman (1995, 95–140). – reference: Berlin, Isaiah. 1972/2013. “The Originality of Machiavelli.” In Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas (2nd ed.), ed. HenryHardy, 33–100. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. – reference: Walzer, Michael. 1983. Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality. New York: Basic Books. – reference: 2. The term Anthropocene refers to the period of significant human impact on the geology and ecology of Earth, with particular attention to global warming (see, e.g., Ellis 2018). Although not yet an official label of geological periodization, the term has widespread uptake within the scientific, government, and public domains. Although criticized in academic debates for distributing responsibility while masking culpability (e.g., of capitalism, First World societies, extraction industries, and political interests), it remains superior to proposed alternatives (e.g., Capitalocene, Chthulucene) as a means of public discussion, scientific organization, and collective mobilization. Rejecting these alternatives is a small example of a prudential approach to the crisis. – reference: 7. The ubiquity of self-interested calculation accounts for the ambiguity and frequent variation in the use of the term prudence, which can mean either thinking in terms of expediency or thinking in terms of expediency plus normative principles. – reference: Griffin, James. 1986. Well-Being: Its Meaning, Measurement, and Moral Importance. Oxford: Oxford University Press. – reference: Scarry, Elaine. 1999. On Beauty and Being Just. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. – reference: Rickert, Thomas. 2013. Ambient Rhetoric: The Attunements of Rhetorical Being. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. – reference: Demos, T. J. 2016. Decolonizing Nature: Contemporary Art and the Politics of Ecology. Berlin: Sternberg. – reference: 10. For example, in rhetorical studies, Michael Leff’s Ciceronian humanism featured “a suspicious attitude toward abstract theory not only in respect to rhetoric but also to ethics and politics” (Leff 2012, 214). – reference: 25. Prudence is derived from the Latin providere, “to see ahead.” For a review of research on prudence as a cognitive modality and an attempt to develop a model consistent with contemporary psychological research, see Kristjánsson, Fowers, Darnell, and Pollard (2021). – reference: Hariman, Robert. 1995. Political Style: The Artistry of Power. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. – reference: “ESG Investing.” n.d. RBC Global Asset Management. https://institutional.rbcgam.com/en/us/responsible-investment/environmental-social-governance. – reference: 14. Plato’s Gorgias 456b is the classical source. For two pertinent examples involving the arts, see the Globaïa website (https://globaia.org) and Maya Lin’s “What Is Missing?” (https://www.whatismissing.org). – reference: Garver, Eugene. 1987. Machiavelli and the History of Prudence. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. – reference: ________. 2022. “Dark Embodiment: The Silhouette as Rhetorical Form.”Rhetorica Scandinavica26:5–22. – reference: 29. “‘In nature, there is no way to represent a “whole group” within a single value system,’ Peter continued. ‘Life moves toward diversity, toward resilience. Everything is negotiation, compromise, collaboration.’ On this we agreed. ‘Imagine if instead the requirement of the exercise was to diversify,’ he said, ‘to come up with a thousand solutions to a single problem.’ I could imagine it. In fact, I’ve come to believe it’s exactly what’s required of us” (Wells 2021, 195). – reference: 5. I use incommensurability according to its common usage in political theory since the term was advanced in Rorty (1989). For detailed discussion of the term that ultimately remains consistent with my usage, see Griffin (1986; see also Larmore 1989). Heidlebaugh (2001) brings various elements of classical rhetoric to bear on the topic. – reference: Hudson, A. J. 2021. “The End of the World, for Whom? or, Whose World? Whose Ending? An Afrofuturist and Afropessimist Counter Perspective on Climate Apocalypse.”American Studies60, nos. 3–4:77–82. – reference: 1. Lois Self summarizes the close relationship between rhetoric and prudence in classical antiquity and the Renaissance: “Rhetoric is an art, phronesis an intellectual virtue; both are special ‘reasoned capacities’ which properly function in the world of probability; both are normative processes in that they involve rational principles of choice-making; both have general applicability but always require careful analysis of particulars in determining the best response to each specific situation; both ideally take into account the wholeness of human nature (rhetoric in its three appeals, phronesis in its balance of desire and reason); and finally, both have social utility and responsibility in that both treat matters of the public good” (1979, 135). Richard Brownstein makes a similar comparison: “[Rhetoric and phronesis] have the same ultimate objective, the prakton agathon; for both this is the product of their first objective, judgment or choice; both deal with the contingent; in both reasoning starts from probabilistic premises, but each is ‘more than a reasoned state’; and both produce their ends by means of deliberation. It is clear that rhetoric externalizes, and makes public and social, the internal and personal characteristics of phronesis” (1974, 23; see also Halliwell 1996). With respect to the twentieth-century academic discipline, a key text that grounded rhetoric in situated judgment is Edwin Black’s Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method (1965). – reference: Rorty, Richard. 1989. Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: 21. For discussions of how decorum was a principle in the public art representing republican governance and in the general influence of rhetoric on all the arts in the Renaissance, see, e.g., Skinner (2002a, 2002b) and van Eck (2007). – reference: ________. 2024. “Beauty and the Anthropocene.”China Media Research20, no. 2:56–66. – reference: “Making Peace with Nature.” 2021. UN Environment Programme, February 11. http://www.unep.org/resources/making-peace-nature. – reference: ________. 2020. Beyond the World’s End: Arts of Living at the Crossing. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. – reference: AR6 Synthesis Report: Climate Change 2023 . 2023. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle. – reference: 26. Morton’s (2018) brief for ecological art has the same philosophical provenance. – reference: 17. Subsidiarity also is evident in Fratelli Tutti (Francis 2020, ¶¶142, 175, 187). – reference: Gadamer, Hans George. 1986. The Relevance of the Beautiful and Other Essays. Edited by RobertBernasconi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Wells, Lisa. 2021. Believers: Making a Life at the End of the World. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. – reference: ________. 2014b. “Why Do We Need Practical Wisdom? A Chinese Lesson in the Process of Globalisation.”Global Discourse5, no. 4:519–33. – reference: Leff, Michael C. 2012. “Tradition and Agency in Humanistic Rhetoric.”Philosophy and Rhetoric45, no. 2:213–26. – reference: Ghosh, Amitav. 2016. The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. – reference: 27. Notably: “Our view is now bi-stable. We must always be ready to move from one view of the world to another. They are always competing with each other. We are learning to live in two worlds at once” (Lanham 2006, 258). Lanham’s immediate context is the digital media environment, but the theme has been present throughout his career and can be applied easily in other contexts open to the history of rhetoric. – reference: Schwartz, Barry, and KennethSharpe. 2010. Practical Wisdom: The Right Way to Do the Right Thing. New York: Riverhead Books. – reference: ________. 2001. “Decorum.” In Encyclopedia of Rhetoric, ed. Thomas O.Sloane, 199–209. New York: Oxford University Press. – reference: 23. For an excellent discussion of Western philosophies of beauty and the role beauty can play in collective life, see Dierksmeier (2022). – reference: Skinner, Quentin. 2002a. “Ambrogio Lorenzetti and the Portrayal of Virtuous Government.” In Renaissance Virtues, vol. 2 of Visions of Politics, 39–92. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. – reference: Taparia, Hans. 2022. “Opinion: One of the Hottest Trends in the World of Investing Is a Sham.”New York Times, September 29. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/29/opinion/esg-investing-responsibility.html. – reference: Hariman, Robert, and John LouisLucaites. 2007. No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. – ident: 2025091809530940200_r43 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r66 – volume-title: Believers: Making a Life at the End of the World year: 2021 ident: 2025091809530940200_r65 – start-page: 93 volume-title: Renaissance Virtues year: 2002 ident: 2025091809530940200_r55 article-title: “Ambrogio Lorenzetti on the Power and Glory of Republics.” – ident: 2025091809530940200_r6 – volume-title: All Art Is Ecological year: 2018 ident: 2025091809530940200_r44 – volume-title: The Relevance of the Beautiful and Other Essays year: 1986 ident: 2025091809530940200_r20 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r62 – start-page: 33 volume-title: Against the Current: Essays in the History of Ideas year: 1972/2013 ident: 2025091809530940200_r3 article-title: “The Originality of Machiavelli.” – volume-title: Machiavelli and the History of Prudence year: 1987 ident: 2025091809530940200_r22 – volume-title: Political Style: The Artistry of Power year: 1995 ident: 2025091809530940200_r26 – volume-title: The Treeline: The Last Forest and the Future of Life on Earth year: 2022 ident: 2025091809530940200_r46 – start-page: 39 volume-title: Renaissance Virtues year: 2002 ident: 2025091809530940200_r54 article-title: “Ambrogio Lorenzetti and the Portrayal of Virtuous Government.” – volume-title: Marxism, China and Globalization year: 2019 ident: 2025091809530940200_r69 – volume-title: Orator year: 1962 ident: 2025091809530940200_r7 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r19 – volume-title: Prudence: Classical Virtue, Postmodern Practice year: 2003 ident: 2025091809530940200_r28 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r57 – volume-title: Practical Wisdom: The Right Way to Do the Right Thing year: 2010 ident: 2025091809530940200_r52 – volume-title: Beyond the World’s End: Arts of Living at the Crossing year: 2020 ident: 2025091809530940200_r11 – volume-title: The Public Image: Photography and Civic Spectatorship year: 2016 ident: 2025091809530940200_r32 – volume: 60 start-page: 77 issue: nos. 3–4 year: 2021 ident: 2025091809530940200_r35 article-title: “The End of the World, for Whom? or, Whose World? 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An Afrofuturist and Afropessimist Counter Perspective on Climate Apocalypse.” publication-title: American Studies – volume-title: The Economics of Attention: Style and Substance in the Age of Information year: 2006 ident: 2025091809530940200_r38 – volume-title: Art, Theory, and Practice in the Anthropocene year: 2019 ident: 2025091809530940200_r47 – volume-title: The Nicomachean Ethics year: 1985 ident: 2025091809530940200_r1 – volume: 20 start-page: 56 issue: no. 2 year: 2024 ident: 2025091809530940200_r30 article-title: “Beauty and the Anthropocene.” publication-title: China Media Research – volume: 12 start-page: 130 issue: no. 2 year: 1979 ident: 2025091809530940200_r53 article-title: “Rhetoric and Phronesis: The Aristotelian Ideal.” publication-title: Philosophy and Rhetoric – volume-title: Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants year: 2013 ident: 2025091809530940200_r36 – volume-title: Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity year: 1989 ident: 2025091809530940200_r49 – volume: 26 start-page: 5 year: 2022 ident: 2025091809530940200_r29 article-title: “Dark Embodiment: The Silhouette as Rhetorical Form.” publication-title: Rhetorica Scandinavica – volume-title: Judgment, Rhetoric, and the Problem of Incommensurability: Recalling Practical Wisdom year: 2001 ident: 2025091809530940200_r34 – volume-title: Machiavelli: The Prince year: 1532/1988 ident: 2025091809530940200_r42 – volume-title: Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality year: 1983 ident: 2025091809530940200_r64 – volume-title: Decolonizing Nature: Contemporary Art and the Politics of Ecology year: 2016 ident: 2025091809530940200_r9 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r12 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r61 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r2 – volume-title: Ambient Rhetoric: The Attunements of Rhetorical Being year: 2013 ident: 2025091809530940200_r48 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r16 – volume-title: Patterns of Moral Complexity year: 1989 ident: 2025091809530940200_r39 – volume-title: Venus in Exile: The Rejection of Beauty in Twentieth-Century Art year: 2001 ident: 2025091809530940200_r60 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r58 – volume-title: Against the Anthropocene: Visual Culture and Environment Today year: 2017 ident: 2025091809530940200_r10 – volume-title: Liberalism and the Limits of Justice year: 1982 ident: 2025091809530940200_r50 – volume-title: Loving Nature: Ecological Integrity and Christian Responsibility year: 1991 ident: 2025091809530940200_r45 – volume-title: Well-Being: Its Meaning, Measurement, and Moral Importance year: 1986 ident: 2025091809530940200_r24 – volume-title: No Caption Needed: Iconic Photographs, Public Culture, and Liberal Democracy year: 2007 ident: 2025091809530940200_r31 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r8 – volume-title: Classical Rhetoric and the Visual Arts in Early Modern Europe year: 2007 ident: 2025091809530940200_r63 – start-page: 175 volume-title: Essays on Aristotle’s Rhetoric year: 1996 ident: 2025091809530940200_r25 article-title: “The Challenge of Rhetoric to Political and Ethical Theory in Aristotle.” – volume: 45 start-page: 213 issue: no. 2 year: 2012 ident: 2025091809530940200_r40 article-title: “Tradition and Agency in Humanistic Rhetoric.” publication-title: Philosophy and Rhetoric doi: 10.5325/philrhet.45.2.0213 – volume-title: The Great Derangement: Climate Change and the Unthinkable year: 2016 ident: 2025091809530940200_r23 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r17 – volume: 5 start-page: 519 issue: no. 4 year: 2014 ident: 2025091809530940200_r68 article-title: “Why Do We Need Practical Wisdom? A Chinese Lesson in the Process of Globalisation.” publication-title: Global Discourse – volume: 5 issue: no. 2 year: 2014 ident: 2025091809530940200_r67 article-title: “Ecological Tension: Between Minimum and Maximum Changes.” publication-title: Comparative Philosophy – volume-title: Rhetorical Criticism: A Study in Method year: 1965 ident: 2025091809530940200_r4 – volume: 25 start-page: 239 issue: no. 3 year: 2021 ident: 2025091809530940200_r37 article-title: “Phronesis (Practical Wisdom) as a Type of Contextual Integrative Thinking.” publication-title: Review of General Psychology doi: 10.1177/10892680211023063 – volume-title: The Practice of the Wild year: 1990 ident: 2025091809530940200_r59 – volume-title: A Sense of Urgency: How the Climate Crisis Is Changing Rhetoric year: 2023 ident: 2025091809530940200_r33 – volume-title: Back to the Rough Ground: “Phronesis” and “Techne” in Modern Philosophy and Aristotle year: 1993 ident: 2025091809530940200_r13 – volume-title: Anthropocene: A Very Short Introduction year: 2018 ident: 2025091809530940200_r15 – volume: 93 start-page: 769 issue: no. 4 year: 1999 ident: 2025091809530940200_r21 article-title: “Value Pluralism and Liberal Political Theory.” publication-title: American Political Science Review doi: 10.2307/2586111 – volume-title: On Beauty and Being Just year: 1999 ident: 2025091809530940200_r51 – start-page: 19 volume-title: Rhetoric: A Tradition in Transition year: 1974 ident: 2025091809530940200_r5 article-title: “Aristotle and the Rhetorical Process.” – volume-title: A Sand County Almanac: And Sketches Here and There year: 1949/2020 ident: 2025091809530940200_r41 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r14 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r18 – ident: 2025091809530940200_r56 – start-page: 199 volume-title: Encyclopedia of Rhetoric year: 2001 ident: 2025091809530940200_r27 article-title: “Decorum.” |
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