Increasing Temperature and Relative Humidity Accelerates Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 on Surfaces
Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person trans...
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| Médium: | Journal Article |
| Jazyk: | English |
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United States
American Society for Microbiology
01.07.2020
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| ISSN: | 2379-5042, 2379-5042 |
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| Abstract | Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent.
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments.
IMPORTANCE
Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. |
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| AbstractList | ABSTRACTCoronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments.IMPORTANCE Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. ABSTRACT Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments. IMPORTANCE Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments. IMPORTANCE Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments. IMPORTANCE Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments. IMPORTANCE Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments. Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments.IMPORTANCE Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent.Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first identified in China in late 2019 and is caused by newly identified severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Previous studies had reported the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture media and deposited onto surfaces under a limited set of environmental conditions. Here, we broadly investigated the effects of relative humidity, temperature, and droplet size on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 in a simulated clinically relevant matrix dried on nonporous surfaces. The results show that SARS-CoV-2 decayed more rapidly when either humidity or temperature was increased but that droplet volume (1 to 50 μl) and surface type (stainless steel, plastic, or nitrile glove) did not significantly impact decay rate. At room temperature (24°C), virus half-life ranged from 6.3 to 18.6 h depending on the relative humidity but was reduced to 1.0 to 8.9 h when the temperature was increased to 35°C. These findings suggest that a potential for fomite transmission may persist for hours to days in indoor environments and have implications for assessment of the risk posed by surface contamination in indoor environments.IMPORTANCE Mitigating the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in clinical settings and public spaces is critically important to reduce the number of COVID-19 cases while effective vaccines and therapeutics are under development. SARS-CoV-2 transmission is thought to primarily occur through direct person-to-person transfer of infectious respiratory droplets or through aerosol-generating medical procedures. However, contact with contaminated surfaces may also play a significant role. In this context, understanding the factors contributing to SARS-CoV-2 persistence on surfaces will enable a more accurate estimation of the risk of contact transmission and inform mitigation strategies. To this end, we have developed a simple mathematical model that can be used to estimate virus decay on nonporous surfaces under a range of conditions and which may be utilized operationally to identify indoor environments in which the virus is most persistent. |
| Author | Yolitz, Jason Wood, Stewart Williams, Gregory Yeager, John J. Ferris, Allison Reese, Amy L. Freeburger, Denise Hooper, Idris Herzog, Artemas Hevey, Michael C. Miller, David Ratnesar-Shumate, Shanna Dabisch, Paul Dawson, David G. Zeitouni, Nathalie E. Wahl, Victoria Altamura, Louis A. Biryukov, Jennifer Krause, Melissa Weaver, Wade Boydston, Jeremy A. Phillips, Aaron Dunning, Rebecca A. |
| Author_xml | – sequence: 1 givenname: Jennifer orcidid: 0000-0002-9598-3876 surname: Biryukov fullname: Biryukov, Jennifer organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 2 givenname: Jeremy A. surname: Boydston fullname: Boydston, Jeremy A. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 3 givenname: Rebecca A. surname: Dunning fullname: Dunning, Rebecca A. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 4 givenname: John J. surname: Yeager fullname: Yeager, John J. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 5 givenname: Stewart surname: Wood fullname: Wood, Stewart organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 6 givenname: Amy L. surname: Reese fullname: Reese, Amy L. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 7 givenname: Allison surname: Ferris fullname: Ferris, Allison organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 8 givenname: David surname: Miller fullname: Miller, David organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 9 givenname: Wade surname: Weaver fullname: Weaver, Wade organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 10 givenname: Nathalie E. orcidid: 0000-0001-5525-6976 surname: Zeitouni fullname: Zeitouni, Nathalie E. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 11 givenname: Aaron surname: Phillips fullname: Phillips, Aaron organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 12 givenname: Denise surname: Freeburger fullname: Freeburger, Denise organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 13 givenname: Idris surname: Hooper fullname: Hooper, Idris organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 14 givenname: Shanna orcidid: 0000-0001-5181-7772 surname: Ratnesar-Shumate fullname: Ratnesar-Shumate, Shanna organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 15 givenname: Jason surname: Yolitz fullname: Yolitz, Jason organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 16 givenname: Melissa surname: Krause fullname: Krause, Melissa organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 17 givenname: Gregory surname: Williams fullname: Williams, Gregory organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 18 givenname: David G. surname: Dawson fullname: Dawson, David G. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 19 givenname: Artemas surname: Herzog fullname: Herzog, Artemas organization: Censeo Consulting Group Inc., Washington, DC, USA – sequence: 20 givenname: Paul orcidid: 0000-0002-3181-6825 surname: Dabisch fullname: Dabisch, Paul organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 21 givenname: Victoria orcidid: 0000-0002-6588-4308 surname: Wahl fullname: Wahl, Victoria organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 22 givenname: Michael C. surname: Hevey fullname: Hevey, Michael C. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA – sequence: 23 givenname: Louis A. orcidid: 0000-0001-7389-295X surname: Altamura fullname: Altamura, Louis A. organization: National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC), Operated by Battelle National Biodefense Institute (BNBI) for the U.S. Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate, Fort Detrick, Maryland, USA |
| BackLink | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/32611701$$D View this record in MEDLINE/PubMed |
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| ContentType | Journal Article |
| Copyright | Copyright © 2020 Biryukov et al. Copyright © 2020 Biryukov et al. This work is published under https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License. Copyright © 2020 Biryukov et al. 2020 Biryukov et al. |
| Copyright_xml | – notice: Copyright © 2020 Biryukov et al. – notice: Copyright © 2020 Biryukov et al. This work is published under https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (the “License”). Notwithstanding the ProQuest Terms and Conditions, you may use this content in accordance with the terms of the License. – notice: Copyright © 2020 Biryukov et al. 2020 Biryukov et al. |
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